sommQ:- 






A li^md-Book for the 
Stiideiit and Stockman 




'o 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 






Chap...r?-i Copyright No.. 
Shelf_...."y._5.S^- 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



A HAND-BOOK 



FOB THB 



STUDENT AND STOCKMAN 



W. A. HENRY 



Dean of the College of Agriculture^ 

a-nd Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, 

University of Wisconsin 



" The eye of the master fattens his cattle." 

— Oerman adage. 



]\ 



PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 
MADISON, WIS. 

1898 . . . 

^«^^^ TVVO COPIES RECEIVED. 

^898, 



c.^' 



'>..A -• 



^% 



4803 



Copyright, 1898, 
BY W. A. HENRY. 



M. J. CANTWELL, PRINTER, MADISON, WIS. 



PREFACE. 

For more than a generation past many of the ablest scientists 
of the Old World have devoted their energies to a study of 
the laws of animal nutrition. American Experiment Stations, 
although of recent origin, have added much to our store of 
knowledge concerning the application of science to stock feed- 
ing. From these fruitful sources the writer has endeavored to 
select data important in establishing principles and helpful in 
directing rational practice. In addition there has been gathered 
from all available sources the experiences and observations of 
stockmen. 

Much space is occupied by tables, which are usually condensed 
and arranged from the original sources, to which references are 
made. By their help it is hoped the student will be able to 
determine for himself to what extent the deductions drawn are 
warranted by the facts. Moreover, the data they contain may 
form the basis for new studies with those specially interested, 
and may make additional conclusions possible. 

The stockman whose training has been solely in the school of 
experience often holds in light regard that which is written con- 
cerning his vocation. Let him remember that facts and truths 
are the same whether their repository is a book or the human 
mind. Held by the latter, all perish with the possessor; in the 
keeping of the former, the whole world may be benefited. On 
the other hand, novices usually underestimate the importance of 
experience, often thinking that by reading they can acquire the 
knowledge necessary in the prosecution of their business. That 
stock feeding is an art and not a science, and that experience and 
judgment must rule in its successful conduct, is recognized in 
this volume by placing on the title page the adage, "The eye of 
the master fattens his cattle." In this we have followed the 



iv Preface. 

German author Kiihii in his popular work on the same topic. In 
the successful management of live stock abstract knowledge can- 
not take the place of experience, though it will prove of the 
highest value when both are rightly combined. The stockman 
who in addition to experience possesses some knowledge of the 
composition of the nutrients of feeding stuffs, and has considered 
how the animal grows and is nourished by them, is certainly 
thereby better equipped for wisely and economically administer- 
ing feed to the animals under his care. And in the deeper in- 
sight and wider range of vision which these studies insure, there 
comes keener enjoyment and a greater satisfaction to the posses- 
sor, in his daily round of duties. 

Acknowledgment is due my co-worker, Prof. F. W. "VVoll, for 
assistance, especially in collating the data published by foreign 
investigators. His familiarity with this source of information 
has been of the highest utility. Mr. A. M. Troyer, a graduate 
student in agriculture, has assisted in preparing and verifying 

the tables from American sources. 

W. A. Heney. 
Madison, Wis., February, 1898. 



CONTENTS. 



Part I.— Plant Growth and ANiMAii Nutrition. 
Chapter. Pagb. 

I. The Plant; How it Grows and Elaborates Food for 

Animals 1 

II. Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation 12 

III. Digestion, Respiration and Calorimetry 26 

IV. Animal Nutrition 40 

V. The Source of Muscular Energy; Composition of Ani- 
mals Before and After Fattening 63 

VI. Influence of Feed on the Animal Body 78 

VII, Explanation of Tables of Composition and Feeding 
Standards — Methods of Calculating Rations for 

Farm Animals, etc 97 

Part II. — Feeding Stuffs. 

VIII. Leading Cereals and Their By-products 119 

IX, Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds and 

Their By-products 143 

X. Indian Corn as a Forage Plant 163 

XL The Grasses, Fresh and Cured — Straw 178 

XII, Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay . . . 195 

XIII. Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs 211 

XIV. SoilingCattle — Preparation of Feeding Stuffs ... 231 

XV. The Ensilage of Fodders 245 

XVI. Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 263 

Part III. — Feeding Farm Animals. 

XVII. Investigations Concerning the Horse 271 

XVIII. Feeds for the Horse 292 

XIX. Feed and Care of the Horse 311 

XX. Calf Rearing 334 

XXI. Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations . . . 345 

XXII. Factors in Steer Fattening — Final Results .... 364 

XXIII. Counsel in the Feed Lot 381 

XXIV. The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings 401 



VI 



Chapter. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 



XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 



Contents. 

Pagb. 

Station Tests with Feeding Stuffs for Dairy Cows . . 413 

Influence of Feed on Milk — Wide and Narrow Rations 437 
Public Tests of Pure-bred Dairy Cows — Cost of Pro- 
ducing MUk and Fat in Dairy Herds at Various 

Experiment Stations 448 

Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow 463 

Investigations with Sheep 480 

Experiments in Fattening Sheep — Wool Production . 497 

General Care of Slieep — Fattening 514 

Investigations with Swine 535 

Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs 556 

Danish Pig-feeding Experiments 583 

Feeding and Management of Swine — Effect of Feed 

on the Carcass of the Pig 604 



FEEDS AND FEEDING. 



Part I. 
PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL NUTRITION. 



CHAPTEE I. 



THE PLANT; HOW IT GROWS AND ELABORATES 
FOOD FOR ANIMALS. 

I. Flant Groicth. 

1. Concerning plant cells. — Since plants and their products in 
some form, directly or indirectly, constitute the food of animals, 
it is proper in these studies that we briefly examine how the plant 
grows and elaborates this food. 

The unit of plant growth is the cell. K we study a grain of 
corn or a corn stalk we find it made up of cells variously modified,, 
the whole group together taking on the form of the object under 
consideration. In their primary condition all cells are closed 
sacs, and contain th'e juices and other substances incident to plant 
growth. The walls of the plant cells are composed of a woody 
substance called cellulose. These walls may be thin and tender to 
the teeth of the animal, as in the young plants of the fields, or 
thick, woody and tough, as in the stems of the forest trees. Before 
studying more intimately the plant cell, its contents, and what 
occurs within it, let us consider the substances essential to plant 
growth. 

2. Elements essential to plant life. — The elementary substances 
required for plant life are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen^. 



2 Feeds and Feedinr/. 

X30tassiiim, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, clilorin and 
sulfur. The plant can make no use of these elements in their 
uucombined form, with the single exception of oxygen, of which 
it may utilize a small amount in elementary form. All the other 
elements, as well as oxygen for the most part, must be combined 
y\'it\i one another in some form to be of use to the plant. The 
minoial substances which are taken up by the roots of the plant 
laaj' be grouped as follows: 



Sulfates 

Phosphates I ^ 

jSTitrates and 



Potassium 
Calcium 
Magnesium and 
Iron. 



Chlorids 

Xitrogon in the form of nitrates and as ammonia is taken up 
by the plant through its roots. Legumes (peas, clover, etc.) 
possess the x>ower of fixing the free nitrogen of the air through 
the intermediate action of certain species of bacteria harbored 
by the roots. Otherwise such nitrogen is not directly av^ailable 
for plant growth. 

3. Water required by plants. — Water, as we may judge from 
its abundance in plants, is of the highest importance to them. 
Half-grown clover plants may contain as much as 92 per cent. 
A\'ater, or more than is found in skim milk. The turnip contains 
from 87 to 92 per cent, water. "When a crop of corn is i^artially 
grown, nine-tenths of its whole weight may be water. Plants 
exhale a large amount of water through their leaves during 
growth. A sunflower plant 3.3 feet high has been known to 
exhale 1.25 pounds of water through its leaves during twelve 
hours. Lawes and Gilbert found in the moist climate of England, 
that wheat, barley, beans, peas and clover exhaled during five 
months of growth about 200 times their dry weight of water. King, 
of the Wisconsin Station, i measuring the water given off through 
leaf e^'aporation as Avell as by the soil supporting the plants, 
found that for each pound of drj^ matter produced by the plant 
iu root, stem, leaf and seed, there were required for corn 301, 
for barley 401, and for oats 501 pounds of water. The transpi- 
ration of water by the leaves causes an upward progress of that 
liquid from the roots through the stem of at least 1.3 inches 

» Rept. 1891. 



How the Flant Groivs. 3 

per minute. Under certain conditions tlie upward movement of 
water in plant stems may exceed 30 inches per minute. 

4. How plants gather food. — Carbonic acid, which is next to 
water in the amount utilized by plants, is taken up by them 
through the medium of the leaves. Ten thousand volumes of air 
contain about three volumes of carbonic acid gas; thirty- two 
hundred cubic yards of air hold one pound of this gas. An acre 
of growing wheat will gather dui^ing four months one ton of car- 
bonic acid gas, or an amount equal to all the air contains over 
the same area of land to a height of three miles. 

In the leaves of plants, mostly on their under side, are numerous 
minute openings leading into the interior. Air passing through 
these carries with it carbonic acid, which is absorbed by the leaf 
cells. The feeding roots of plants are clothed with minute hairs, 
which take up water from the soil, together with mineral matter 
and nitrogen compomids in solution. There are no direct open- 
ings in these root hairs, the material being taken up by diffusion. 
Eoots are capable of dissolving and absorbing solid ingredients 
from the soil particles with which they come in contact. Though 
they take up some matter which is useless to the plant, roots 
exercise a very considerable selective power in the materials 
absorbed, and do not seem to gather plant food indiscriminately. 

5. Plant building. — Having learned what the plant lives upon 
and how it gathers its food, let us consider how it grows. In the 
active cells, especially those of the leaves, there is found a trans- 
lucent, jelly-like substance called protoplasm. The life of the 
plant may be said to exist in this protoplasm. The green coloring 
of leaves and stems is due to a substance called chlorophyll con- 
tained within the protoplasm. Chlorophyll is formed only in 
sunlight. The carbonic acid gas gathered by the leaves is ab- 
sorbed by the cells containing protoplasm charged with chloro- 
phyll. The plant everywhere is bathed with j uices called ' ' sap, ' ' 
a very large portion of which is water brought in by the roots. 
In this sap are mineral matter and nitrogen compounds. And 
now for the wonderful transmutation. 

The carbonic acid gas and water commingling in the cells are 
decomposed and their atoms re- arranged and welded into a new 



4 Feeds and Feeding. 

substance by tlie energy of sunliglit and heat guided by the life 
principle of the protoplasm with its chlorophyll. The result of 
the union of the gas and water is starch, with some oxygen left 
as a by-product. The oxygen escapes to the air, while the starch 
is retained by the plant for manifold uses. It is possible that 
starch is not the first substance formed, but it is the first with 
which we have to deal. 

6. Starch. — The great building material of the plant is starch. 
The plant has use for little or none of the starch in the cells 
where it is manufactured, but requires it elsewhere. Being insol- 
uble in water and forming in cells which are closed sacs, the 
starch cannot be transferred to other parts of the plant in its 
original form. The difficulty is overcome by the protoplasm of 
the cell changing the starch into sugar and soluble substances 
closely allied to starch, as we shall presehtly see. Sugar is solu- 
ble in the juices of the plant, and by diffusion it is readily trans- 
ferred from cell to cell until it reaches the place where needed. 
The principle which renders starch soluble is an unorganized 
ferment called '^ diastase," which can change two thousand times 
its own weight of starch into soluble compounds. 

The walls of the innumerable cells of the plant framework are 
constructed of cellulose, a substance having the same composition 
as sta,rch. Where growth occurs in the enlarging plant, the newly- 
formed cells are tender and filled with protoplasm. Each cell 
divides into two or more cells, the newly-formed members growing 
to full size. The cell walls thus enlarged are built of soluble 
sugar changed to insoluble cellulose through the action of pro- 
toplasm. 

7. Growth from the chemist's standpoint. — Let us review the 
subject of x)lant growth, as we have studied it to this point, from 
the position of the chemist, in order to fix more clearly in mind 
the process of plant growth. 

With the chemist, ''O" stands for oxygen, ''H" for hydrogen, 
^'C" for carbon. Water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen 
chemically united with one of oxygen. This molecule, which is 
the smallest division of the water particle, they symbolize as 
HgO. In the same manner carbonic acid gas is indicated by COj- 



How the Plant Grows. 5 

The chemist writes the substances formed from carbonic acid gaa 
and water in the plant thus: 

Starch ) 

Cellulose/ ""^ 2^20^10 

Cane sugar C^ jHg oO ^ ^ 

Glucose C12H24O12 
Let us now consider from the chemist's standpoint how starch 
may be formed by the plant from carbonic acid and water, and, 
when once formed, how it may be changed to sugar, glucose or 
cellulose. 

This may be shown by the following equations: 

Taken in by the plant. Changed in the plant to — 

Carbonic acid Water Starch Oxygen 

12(COJ + 10(H,O) = Cj.H^oO.o +24 
Starch by the addition of one part of water becomes cane 
sugar; thus: 

Starch Water Cane sugar 

C12H20O10 + H2O = C12H22O11 
Cane sugar plus one part of water becomes glucose, thus: 
Cane sugar Water Glucose 

^12^22^11 + ^2^ = ^12^24^12 

In the above we observe that 12 molecules of carbonic acid 
united with 10 molecules of water form 1 molecule of starch 
with 24 atoms of oxygen remaining. By the second equation we 
learn that if one molecule of water is added to the starch molecule, 
a molecule of cane sugar results. The addition of another mole- 
cule of water to cane sugar gives glucose. The removal of one 
molecule of water from cane sugar and two from glucose reduces 
these substances back to starch, or to cellulose. 

In the above cases the hydrogen and oxygen stand in the same 
relation to each other as in water, there being tw^o atoms of the 
former to one of the latter. For this reason, starch, cane sugar, 
cellulose and similar substances are called carbohydrates. * 

8. Plant oils. — Another group of building materials found in 
the plant comes under the term ''fats" or ''oils." Though they 

^ For information concerning scientific and technical terms the student 
wiU consult the Glossary at the end of the volume. 



6 Feeds and Feeding. 

are composed of the same three elements found in the carbo- 
hydrate group, the hydrogen atoms are not always twice the 
number of oxygen atoms. These oils are usually compounded 
of several simple oils, the principal of which, with their formulae, 

are as follows: 

Stearin C^.HjjoOg 

Palmitin CgjHggOg 

Olein C-.Hj.^Os 

Oils give off much more heat during combustion than the car- 
bohydrates because they contain a relatively larger quantity ol 
carbon. While found in nearly all parts of the plant, the oils and 
fats are chiefly stored in seeds, as flax, cotton, rape, etc. Oats, 
wheat and corn contain some fats or oils. 

9. Protesn compounds. — Thvis far we have considered the 
plant compounds which result from the union of the three ele- 
ments, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. We now come to a more 
complex group of plant substances containing two additional ele- 
ments, viz., nitrogen and sulfur. It is held that the nitrates 
taken up through the roots of plants on reaching the protoplasmic 
masses in the active cells are broken uj), and the nitric acid and 
sulfur are united with starch or a starch derivative, forming a 
protein compound. Protein substances may be produced in pro- 
toplasmic masses which may or may not contain chlorophyll. The 
protoplasm of active cells, where the work of assimilation goes 
on, is itself a protein substance. Very little protein is found in 
the woody, older portions of the plant, the greater amount existing 
at the point of growth and in the seeds or reproductive parts. In 
the seed the protein exists quite largely in the germ itself, and 
also in the surrounding envelopes. For a definition of protein, 
see Glossary. The protein compounds of i^lants are divided into 
two groups — albuminoids and amides. 

10. The albuminoids. — One group of protein substances is 
characterized by the term ''albuminoids." Vegetable albu- 
men closely resembles the white of egg, and like it, is coagulated 
by heat. Gluten, another albuminoid, is found in the wheat 
grain. It may be separated from the starchy portion of wheat 
flour by washing the dougli in running water, tho siicky mass 



How the Plant Grows. 7 

remaining constitnting crude gluten. The nitrogenous portion ot 
beans, peas, clover seeds, etc., is likewise an albuminoid called 
'Hegumin." 

11. Amides. — The amides are nitrogenous bodies which are 
crystalline and soluble in water. Being soluble, they can pass 
through the cell walls of plant tissues, and thus are capable of 
diffusing from one i)art of the j^lant to another. Since the amides 
are found in the immature and growing parts of ijlants, it is 
probable that their function is the transfer of organized nitrogen 
from one part of the structure to another in the process of plant 
building. 

12. Mineral compounds. — Though occurring in relatively small 
amounts, mineral matter in various combinations is essential to 
the life and development of all plants. The elaboration of food 
materials in the protoplasmic masses referred to in tlie previous 
paragraph, as aa'cU as the development of the young plants from 
the seed, require the presence of mineral matter, which is found 
everywhere in the plant substance. The leaves of i)lants contain 
more ash or mineral matter than the other portions. This is 
lirobably due to the constant evaporation of water from the 
leaves, the ash matter in solution being left behind. 

13. The end of plant effort. — If we study the life history of 
an individual plant we observe that its first eftbrt is directed 
toward self-establishment and enlargement. All of the food 
elaborated from the compounds taken from aii- and soil is trans- 
ferred to the growing parts, that the plant may be built up and 
reach perfection. As the period of maturity approaches, all the 
energies of the iDlant are changed to that of rej)roduction or mul- 
tiplication. The food materials, which were at first used for leat 
multiplication and enlargement or for the growth of more and 
larger stems and roots, are now joined into a current which flows 
to the reproductive parts. First come the blossoms, and then 
the young, enlarging fruits. Into these the sugars, protein com- 
pounds and mineral substances gathered from air and soil, and 
elaborated in the green parts, are iioured in a steady current. 
The wheat plant resulting from a single kernel bears a hundred 
fruits in the shape of grains^ the Indian corn plant may produce 



8 Feeds and Feeding. 

a thousand fold. In each of these grains is a miniature plant, — 
the germ, about which is stored a generous supply of nutriment. 
This is placed in compact, concentrated form, awaiting the time 
when the germ begins life on its own account. In the potato 
tuber there is a liberal storage of starch. In the beet root the 
stored materials are held in the form of cane sugar, reserved for 
seed production the following season. Each germ, or repro- 
ductive part, is surrounded with food elements, arranged after 
nature's choicest plan to aid in reproduction. 

14. The sun the source of plant life. — Thus far we have 
spoken of the plant as though it accomplished all these wonder- 
ful transmutations through self-contained powers. This is incor- 
rect. A plant can no more unite the elements of carbonic acid 
and water into starch, or move this starch, changed to sugar, to 
needed points, than can the wheels of a great factory move with- 
out the impelling force of steam or the electric current. The 
source of all life and power is the sun, the energy of which in 
the shape of light and heat is absorbed by the protoplasmic mass 
and its chlorophyll particles. In the x>lant cells the all-powerful 
energy of the sun, guided by the mysterious principle of life, 
works all the wonderful transmutations we have recorded. 

15. Plants the support of animal life. — Nature has decreed that 
it is the function of the plant, through the sun, to build inorganic 
compounds into organic matter, in which operation the energy 
employed becomes latent. Through digestion and absorption the 
various plant compounds are incorporated in the animal body, 
or are broken down within it into simi)ler compounds than those 
of the plant structure. In this dissolution the energy which was 
hidden in the plant is again revealed in all the manifestations of 
animal life. In the coal burning in the grate we observe the 
re-appearance of the energy of the sun which was stored in plants 
ages ago. In the stalks and ears of corn which we feed to cattle, 
we are furnishing energy received from the sun and rendered 
dormant in plant building during the previous summer. When 
supplying plants and seeds to the animals under his care, the 
stockman observes in their growing bodies warmed by internal 
fires the energy of the sun transmitted by the plant to the animal. 



How the Plant Grows. 



9 



II. Row the Chemist Groups Plant Substances. 

16. Illustrations. — The agricultural chemist divides plant sub- 
stances into groups, differing in some cases from those made by 
the physiological chemist. In the following table a few stock 
feeds are shown as grouped by the agricultui-al chemist, such pres- 
entation being for the purpose of guiding the student in his con- 
sideration of this subject. 

Composition of certain American feeding stuffs, as arranged by tlie 
agricultural chemist. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Fresh pasture 

grass 

Mangels 

Corn 

Red clover hay.. 



O oj 

II 



10 
9 

86 
38 



Percentage composition. 



Water. 



75.3 
90.9 
10.6 
15.3 



Ash. 



2.5 
1.1 
1.5 
6.2 



Protein, 



4.0 

1.4 

10.3 

12.3 



Crude 
fiber. 



5.9 

.9 

2.2 

24! 8 



Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 



11.4 

5.5 

70.4 

38.1 



Ether 
extract. 



5.0 
3.3 



The first column presents the names of the feeding stuifs exam- 
ined. The second column states the number of analyses from 
which the subsequent data are derived. As a rule these analyses 
have been made by chemists at different points in the country, so 
that when a considerable number have been secured we may 
regard the average as representative of the plant or plant sub- 
stances under consideration. The remainder of the table comes 
under the general heading '^Percentage composition." Let us 
consider its several divisions. 

17. Water. — The chemist places a small quantity of the food 
material, usually finely divided by chopping or grinding, into a 
small vessel and ascertains its weight. The balance used is so 
delicate that a thimbleful of corn meal can be weighed with a 
smaller percentage of probable error than is usual when a farmer 
weighs a wagon-load of corn on a good scale. The sample is 
then placed in an oven, where it is dried at a temperatm-e of 212° 
Fahr. for several hours, or until a constant weight is secured. 
The heat drives off the water, and the difference between the two 



10 Ff'f'ils and Feeding. 

weiglits represents tlie amonut of water wliich the sample origi- 
nally contained. 

We learn by the third column of the table that the water iu 
pasture grass is 75.3 per cent, of the whole amount; that is, such 
grass is about three-fourths water. Corn carries 10.6 per cent, 
of water, while red clover hay contains 15.3 pounds to the hun- 
dred weight. 

18. Ash. — Having determined the water in the sample, the 
chemist next burns it to ascertain its ash content. Care is 
taken that no charcoal is left, only the clear ash remaining. The 
next column shows the percentage of ash in the feeding stuffs 
under consideration. In 100 pounds of pasture grass there are 
2.5 i)Ounds of ash. Indian corn has only 1.5 pounds of ash for 
100 of grain, while red clover hay yields 6.2 pounds. This large 
amount comes in part from the accumulation of ash in the leaves 
of the clover jjlant, and in some measure is due to earth washed 
up on the stems of the plant by rain, and to the dust which set- 
tles on plants, and on hay before it is placed in the barn. Such 
foreign material is really not ash, but of necessity is reported ats 
such. 

19. Protein. — The process of determining the protein in a 
feeding stufl' is too complicated for presentation here. Suffice it to 
say that the nitrogen contained therein is determined, and that 
the sum so secured is multiplied by 6.25 to determine the protein, 
since it has been found that about 16 per cent, of protein sub- 
stances consist of nitrogen. By the table we find that the protein 
of liasture grass amounts to 4, mangels to 1.4, corn to 10.3, and 
jed clover hay to 12.3 pounds per hundred weight. "VVe are 
shown that pasture grass is much richer in ]3rotein than are 
mangels, and that clover hay is likcAvise richer than the grain of 
the corn plant. 

20. Crude fiber. — Tlie amount of crude fiber is determined by 
boiling a sample of the fodder successively in weak acid and 
alkali solutions, which dissolve all the softer parts. That which 
remains after washing is called ^ ' crude fiber. ' ' It consists for the 
most part of cellulose, which, as we have already learned, con- 
stitutes the framework of the plant. Corn grains contain only 



How tlie Plant Grows. 11 

2.2 per cent, crude fiber, while clover liay yields nearly 25 
per cent. 

21. Ether extract or fat. — A sample of the fodder, dried so as 
to be free from water, is treated with, ether, which has the power 
of dissolving fat, wax, resins and similar substances. The matter 
extracted by ether is quite commonly called ''fat" in works on 
plant analysis. In this book it is always spoken of as ''ether 
extract," In seeds nearly all the ether extract is fat or oil, and 
has a corresponding feeding value. In plant leaves and stems 
much of the ether extract is wax, chlorophyll and other substances 
of lower feeding value than fat. Mangels are shown by the table 
to yield only .2 of a pound of ether extract per 100, while corn 
reaches 5 per cent. 

22. Nitrogen-free extract. — Nitrogen-free extract signifies what 
is left of the organic matter of the plant after deducting the pre- 
ceding groups of compounds. It contains starch, sugar, pento- 
sans, gums, organic acid and other bodies. The nitrogen- free 
extract and the crude fiber together constitute the carbohydrates 
of the plant physiologist. IsTitrogen-free extract is determined 
by difference. The total dry matter in the fodder, minus the ash, 
ether extract and crude fiber, equals the percentage of nitrogen- 
free extract present. The great difterence between plants and 
seeds as to woody matter is shown in the table. Over 70 per 
cent, of the substance of corn and only about 38 per cent, of 
clover hay is nitrogen-free extract. 



CHAPTER II. 

MASTICATION, DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION.* 

23. Prehension. — Tlie horse wlien grazing gathers herbage 
with the lips, which are very sensitive, and act with great mo- 
bility. The food thus gathered is severed with the incisor or 
front teeth of the tipper and lower jaws. When feeding on hay 
and grain, the horse still makes free use of the lips in working 
the food into the mouth. 

The ox seizes herbage with the outstretched tongue, and by a 
swinging motion of the head severs it as it passes between the 
teeth in the lower jaw and the cartilaginous pad of the upper jaw. 

The sheep, like the ox, has no teeth in the upper jaw; like the 
horse, it makes free use of the lips when grazing. The horse in 
grazing crops the herbage nearer to the ground than does the ox, 
and the sheep still closer than the horse. 

The shape and direction of the front teeth of the hog show an 
omniverous feeder. Probably the grazing quality of the hog 
varies considerably with the breed, and also in different strains 
of the same breed, the skulls and jaws of hogs presenting re- 
markable variations in size and shape. 

24. Mastication. — The food consumed by the animal is reduced 
to fineness by the molar teeth, assisted by the lips, tongue and 
cheeks, which pass it to the place for grinding and hold it in 
position. With herbivorous animals the lower jaw is much 
narrower than the upper. In the horse, when the upper and 
lower grinders of one side are in contact, those of the lower jaw 
on the other side are nearly or quite an inch to the inside of their 
mates above, so that grinding is possible on but one side of the 
mouth at a time. As mastication proceeds, the feed is mixed 

1 Most of the t<3xt and tables in this chapter are adapted from the 
Physiology of the Domestic Animals, by Robert Meade Smith, which 
■excellent work should be consulted by the student seeking further infor- 
mation on these subjects. 



Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 



13 



with saliva poured upon it from glands opening into tlie mouth, 
at several points. The food materials in the mouth are gradually- 
formed into a rounded mass or bolus for swallowing. Colin esti- 
mates that a horse requires one and one-half hours to masticate 
foui- pounds of dry hay, and that this amount will make from 
sixty to sixty-five boluses, the rate of mastication being from 
thirty to eighty strokes of the teeth per minute. Saliva aids 
mastication, and a suppression of the flow prolongs the operation. 
Colin diverted the flow of saliva by fistulas or openings, and 
recorded results as follows: 

Time required by the horse in masticating hay — Colin. 



Average duration of mastica- 
tion of one bolus, seconds.. 
Strokes of teeth, number 



All the saliva 
poured into 
the mouth. 



31.7 

38.6 



Saliva of 

one parotid 

escaping. 



34.2 
36.6 



Saliva of 

both parotids 

escaping. 



74.8 
74.1 



The molar or grinding teeth of the horse wear faster than the 
incisors or cutting teeth, and the former would soon fail to meet 
were it not that the incisors with increasing age gradually incline 
forward, forming a sharper and sharper angle. The seeds of 
plants are not all crushed during mastication, and those escaping 
are distributed over the fields in the excreta, often still possess- 
ing ability to germinate. 

25. Insalivation. — While the food is being ground, it is modi- 
fied by the saliva poured upon it from glands situated about the 
mouth cavity. By means of ingenious experiments, Colin deter- 
mined the amount of saliva secreted by the horse, and found that 
when feeding on hay there was poured out from eleven to thir- 
teen pounds of saliva per hour. Oats require a little more than 
their own weight, green fodder half, and dry^ fodder four times 
its weight of saliva during mastication. If the food of the horse 
for one day amounts to 11 pounds of hay and 11 pounds of other 
dry fodder, this will require four times its weight of saliva, or 
88 pounds, to which must be added 4.4 poimds secreted during 
rest, making 92.4 pounds in all. 



14 Feeds and Feeding. 

Smith. ^ states tliat the ox secretes 112 pounds of saliva daily. 
In the horse the parotid glands, located at the base of the upper 
jaw and emptying near the second molar teeth, yield seven-tenths 
of all the saliva secreted. 

Animals chew their food on one side of the mouth only at a 
time. It has been found that the parotid gland of the horse yields 
saliva only on the side where the food is being masticated, the 
other gland resting until grinding starts nj) on its side. The 
chemical composition of mixed saliva, ^\'hich varies somewhat in 
different animals, is given for the horse as follows: 

Water 992.00 

Mucus and albumen 2.00 

Alkaline carbonates... 1.08 

Alkaline chlorids 4.92 

Alkaline phosphates and phosphate of lime traces. 

1000.00 
The mechanical use of saliva has been mentioned; it serves a 
second and higher purpose. Saliva contains ptyalin, a soluble 
ferment which converts the starch of the food into sugar. It acts 
only upon the starchy matters of the food and not upon the cellu- 
lose or other constituents. Since the food remains in the mouth 
a comparatively short time, but little starch can be changed to 
sugar before the mass is swallowed. The action of the salivk on 
starch continues in the stomach. 

26. Deglutition. — The bolus or rounded mass of food formed by 
the action of the teeth, the cheeks and the tongue is forced into 
the oesophagus or gullet and on into the stomach. The gullet of 
the horse being comparatively small, the boluses do not exceed 
an inch or an inch and a half in diameter; in the ox they may 
be double that size. 

27. Gastric digestion. — The stomachs of our domestic animals 
vary greatly in size, that of the hog holding 7 to 9 quarts, the 
horse 17 to 19, and the ox over 300 quarts. Colin, who gives the 
above data, found 145 pounds of air- dry fodder in the first three 
compartments of the stomach of a cow which had fasted two 

1 Physiology of the Domestic Animals. 



Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 15 

«lays. The stomacli of the ox is never without considerable con- 
tent, even after long starvation. The digestion of the starchy 
jnatter of the food through action of the saliva continues in the 
stomach. After the food enters the stomach a churning motion 
is set up which causes it to travel from the place of entrance to- 
ward the exit. AVhile this motion is going on, a fluid is being 
poured upon it from the lining of the stomach. This fluid is at 
first alkaline, but gradually becomes more and more acid. 

The amount of gastric fluid poured out has not yet been defi- 
nitely determined. Some writers place it as high as one-fourth 
the weight of the body daily, others a tenth, and othei'S even less. 
The composition of the gastric fluid of the sheep is as follows: 

Water 086.14 

Organic matter (especial 1 y iei-inents ) 4. 05 

Sodium chlorid 4.37 

Calcium chlorid 0.11 

Hydrochloric acid 4. 05 

Potassium chlorid 1. 52 

Ammonium chlorid 0.47 

Calcium phosphate 1. 18 

Magnesium phosphate 0. 57 

Ferric phosphate 0. 33 

The constituents of the gastric juice whicli eifect changes are 
pepsin, rennet and acid. Fepsin is a soluble ferment Avhich acts 
upon the food only in the presence of dilute acid. Bennet has 
the po\^■er of curdling milk, one part coagulating 400,000 parts 
of casein. Cane sugar is not fermentable and cannot be assimi- 
lated until it is ehungod to glucose and laevulose. JlydrocMoric 
acid is present in considerable amount in the gastric juice. Cane 
sugar in tlie food is slowly changed by this acid into laevulose 
and glucose. The main action of the gastric juice is, however, 
in converting the albuminoids into peptones, leaving the fatty 
matter and cellulose to be attacked later. The stomach of the 
horse is so small that it cannot contain a full feed at one time, 
and consequently that portion which is first eaten is usually 
})ushed on from the stomach into the small intestines before it 
has been long acted on by the gastric juice. 



IG Feeds and Feediruj. 

28. Gastric digestion of ruminants. — The stomach of the ok 
and sheep is large and has fonr apartments, viz. — the rumen, or 
paunch, the first stomach; the honey comb or reticulum, the second 
stomach; the manyplies or omasum, the third stomach; and the 
fourth stomach, called the rennet or abomasum. The fourth 
stomach corresponds to the single stomach of non-ruminants, — 
the horse, pig, etc. After mastication the food passes from th*- 
mouth into the paunch, or first stomach. The first three stomachfS 
secrete no fluid. In the rumen the food becomes very soft and 
moist, owing to the large amount of saliva secreted and because 
most of the water drank passes into it. The action of the saliva 
in converting starch into sugar continues, and a very considerable 
amount of cellulose may be digested through fermentations, 
which are favored by the high temperature and the moisture of 
the contents. The main purpose of the rumen is to serve as a 
storehouse for food. The second stomach, or reticulum, which 
is really a chamber or part of the paunch, contains much fluid, 
and serves to force the food into the oesophagus for rumination. 
The food, being retiuiied to the mouth, is reduced to greater fine- 
ness by chewing, after which it is again swallowed. The secon<l 
time it passes either to the rumen or the third stomach. It is 
probable that on being re-swallowed most of the food again drops 
back into the paunch, and from here the finer portions are forced 
directly into the third stomach. Like the first and second, the 
thu'd stomach gives off no secretions, and whatever changes 
occur in it must be due to the action of the saliva or to fermen- 
tations begun in the two preceding stomachs. The action of the 
first three stomachs on food is preparatory, for the most part, to 
what occurs in the fourth. The food having been thoroughly 
prepared by re- chewing and by maceration in the first three 
stomachs, digestion goes on rapidly in the fourth. Here, as in 
the stomach of the horse, the albuminoids are changed to pep- 
tones. Tissues are dissolved and their oil contents set free. Cane 
sugar is to some extent converted into invert sugar by the action 
of acid. Starch which escapes conversion into sugar in the 
rumen passes on into the intestines. Owing to the very thorough 
preparation of the food in the first three stomachs, gastric diges- 



Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 17 

tion in the true stomach of the ox and sheep is more perfect than 
in that of the horse and pig. In suckling ruminants the first 
three stomachs are less developed than in grown animals. Colin 
found that the rumen of a calf held 2,6 pounds, the reticulum 
.22, the manjrplies .35 pounds, and the abomasum, or true 
stomach, 7.7 pounds. As the diet of the animal is changed to 
solid food, grass, hay and grains, the first stomach gradually in- 
creases in size, and attains the proportionate volume which it 
has in grown-up animals. It then holds nine times as much as 
the other three stomachs combined. 

29. Bile. — Passing into the small intestine, the food is subjected 
to the action of three other secretions, — bile, pancreatic juice 
and intestinal secretion. 

The bile is a greenish fluid of a neutral or alkaline reaction 
secreted by the liver, the largest single organ of the body. The 
composition of bile is given as follows: 

Ox. Pig. 

Water 90.4 88.8 

Solids 9.6 11.2 

Bile salts ") 

Lecithin, cholesterin. . > 8.0 9.5 

Fats, soaps ) 

Mucin and coloring matter 0.3 0.6 

Inorganic salts 1.3 1.1 

According to Colin the liver of the horse forms over 13 pounds 

of bile, the ox 5. 7, and the sheep . 75 pounds each 21 hours. The 

flow of bile is continuous, increasing somewhat as the food passes 

into the small intestine. Bile contains a ferment in small amount, 

capable of converting starch into sugar. Its main use is to aid 

in the absorption of fats. In the small intestine some of the fat 

of the food is broken uj) into glycerin and fatty acids; the latter 

unite with the alkalies of the bile and pancreatic juice and form 

soaps. These soa\)S aid in forming and holding the remaining 

fat in permanent emulsion. Bile facilitates the passage of the 

emulsified fat through the membranes of the intestines, thus 

aiding in its absorption. It is not only a secretion in aid of 

digestion, but also an excretion or waste product. It prevents 

putrefaction and decomposition of the food in the intestinal canal. 
2 



18 Feeds and Feeding. 

30. Pancreatic juice. — This colorless, alkaline fluid, secreted by 
the pancreas or ' ^ sweet breads, ' ' is poured into the intestine at the 
same time and at about the same x)oint as the bile, so that these 
fluids act together. The pancreatic secretion contains more solids 
than the others mentioned, and has therefore a high specific 
gravity. It is closely allied to blood serum in composition, and 
contains four ferments, one of which splits fats into glycerin and 
fatty acids; another converts starch into sugai"; a third resolves 
protein compounds into soluble peptones, while a fourth curdles 
milk. In one Avay the pancreatic juice resembles saliva, in that 
it converts starch into sugar. One part of the active ferment of 
the pancreatic fluid will convert 40,000 times its own weight of 
starch into sugar and dextrin. Like bile, it converts fat into 
fatty acids and glycerin; like pepsin, it converts protein sub- 
stances into peptones. Unlike the gastric juice, the pancreatic 
secretion acts upon protein in an alkaline solution. Colin and 
others place the maximum secretion of pancreatic juice in the 
horse at three-fifths of a ])Ound per hour. 

31. Large intestine. — The processes of digestion are continued 
in the large intestine (colon) of the Herbivora. The stomach of 
the horse being small, that organ together with the small intes- 
tine has not sufficient capacity to accommodate the bulky, com- 
parati^'ely indigestible food usually supplied this animal, and is 
sux)plemented by the large intestine, which has a capacity of five 
or six times the stomach, peimitting the I'ctention of a large 
(luanlity of food. The large intestine of the ox, which is smaller 
in proportion than that of the horse, serves the same purpose. 

The main office of the large intestine is to serve as a storage 
place for the mixed food materials and digestive juices coming 
from the small intestines, allowing continued action by the latter. 
Here a partial digestion of cellulose takes place through fermen- 
lations, all of the juices secreted by the various digestive organs 
iK'iug without effect on this component. The digestion of celhi- 
lose is as yet not clearly understood, but it seems that under cer- 
tain conditions gaseous products, mainly marsh gas, are formed 
in its fermentations. The value of cellulose has for this reason 
been questioned, but the best authorities hold that the digesti\e 



Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 



19 



portion possesses considerable nutritive value, althougli not as 
much as starch or sugar. 

32. Intestines and stomachs of farm animals. — The length 
and capacity of the intestines and the capacity of the stomach 
of different farm animals are as follows: 

Length of intestines and capacity of stomachs of farm animals. 



Length of intestine. 


Capacity of stomach and 
intestine. 




be 

a 

i 

> 


Katio between 

large and small 

intestine. 


Katio between 
body length and 
small intestine. 


Average capacity. 


Animal. 






.2 


Horse. 
Small intestine 


Feet. 
73.6 
24.5 


3 
1 


1 :12 

1:20 


Horse. 
Stomach 


19.0 

67.4 

137.4 


8.5 


Large intestine 


Small intestine.. 
Large intestine.. 

Total capacity.... 


30.2 
61.3 




223.8 


100. 


Ox. 

Small intestine 


150.9 
86.3 


4.1 
1 


Ox. 

Stomach 


266.9 
69.7 
40.1 


70. S 


Large intestine 


Small intestine.. 
Large intestine.. 

Total capacity.... 


18.5 
10.7 




376.7 


100. 


.Sheep. 
Small intestine 


85.9 
21.4 


4 

1 


1:27 


Sheep. 
Kumen 


24.7 
2.1 
1.0 
3.5 
9.5 
5.9 


52.9 


Large intestine 


Keticulum 

Manvplies 


4.5 
2.0 




Abomasum 

Small intestine.. 
Large intestine.. 

Total capacity.... 


7.5 
20.4 
12.7 




46.7 


100. 


Hog. 
Small intestine 


60.0 
17.1 


3.5 
1 


1 :14 


Hog. 
Stomach 


8.5 

9.7 

10.8 


Of) o 


Large intestine 


Small intestine.. 
Large intestine.. 

Total capacity.... 


33.5 
37.3 




29.0 


100. 



20 Feeds and Feeding. 

Food requires from three to four days to pass througli the 
whole digestive tract of farm animals. The last traces do not 
pass until considerably later. According to Weiske, ^ it takes 
from seven to eight days before the last traces pass the digestive 
canal in case of the sheep. (541) 

33. The intestinal juice. — The juices secreted by the small 
glands along the inner walls of the small intestine contain three 
ferments which act upon starch, cane sugar and protein. Starch 
is readily converted into sugar by the intestinal juice in a neu- 
tral or faintly alkaline solution. The juice further contains a 
special ferment which changes cane sugar into glucose and 
laevulose. 

34. rermentations. — Numerous organisms which find their way 
into the small intestine aloug with food substances give rise to 
fermentations, causing the evolution of various gases, mainly air, 
carbonic acid, hydrogen, ammonia, sulfuretted hydrogen and 
marsh gas. 

35. Absorption. — The stomach and intestines form a convoluted 
tube passing through the body. Food mat-erials within this tube 
are still outside the body. The entrance of digestion products 
into the body is brought about by absorj^tion, which is of two 
kinds. The inner walls of the digestive tract are everywhere 
lined with blood vessels, and substances soluble in water and 
readily diffusible, such as sugar, soaps, salts and peptones, enter 
the blood by diffusion. 

The inner surface of the small intestine is also lined with cone- 
like projections called ''villi." The cells of these villi separate 
from the fluid contents of the iutestines, sugar, fat, peptones, 
salts and other materials, and deliver them into ducts of the 
lymphatic system, by which they are carried forward toward the 
heart, to be mingled with the blood. The material drawn into 
the lymphatics by the villi is called chyle, a substance having a 
milky appearance owing to the fat held in suspension. The fat in 
the chyle of a horse may vary from 1 per cent, when fed on hay, 
to 3 per cent, when fed on oats. The composition of chyle is 
given in the table on the next page. 

1 Journal f. Landw., 1878, p. 175. 



Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 
Composition of chyle. 



21 





Ox. 


Cow. 




Before 
rumination. 


After 
rumination. 


Fed witli 

hay and 

straw. 


Fed with 

straw and 

clover. 


Water 


950.89 

1.76 

39.74 

0.81 

2.47 
4.33 


929.71 

1.96 

59.64 

2.55 

2.50 
3.61 


951.24 

2.82 

38.84 

0.72 

2.77 
3.59 


962.21 


Fibrin 


0.93 


Albuminoids 


26.48 


Fats 


0.49 


Salts, soluble in alco- 
hol 


1.92 


Salts, soluble in water 


7.97 



36. The circulatory system. — The arteries are the tubes or 
canals which carry the blood from the heart. As these tubes 
pass throughout the body they branch again and again, gradually 
growing smaller, until they end in minute divisions called capil- 
laries. The ends of the capillaries connect in turn with the 
veins, which carry the blood back to the heart. The pui'ified 
blood forced outward from the heart through the arteries reaches 
the capillaries, through which portions escape to nourish the 
tissues of the body. That which is not lost through the capilla- 
ries, together with the imj)urities gathered on the way, returns to 
the heart, whence it is forced to the lungs for purification. From 
these it returns to the heart, to be again forced over the body. 

37. The lymphatics. — Besides the circulatory system there is 
a second one which drains the v.hole animal body toward the 
heart only, called the '' Lymphatic system." The broken-down 
tissues of the body are removed through the lymphatic system, 
and the material thus drained is called lymj)h. Lymph varies 
in composition according to the stage of activity of the organs 
contributing it and the locality from which it is taken. Lymph 
and chyle, the one worn-out material from the tissues of the body, 
the other fresh material from the digestive tract, are poured 
through the lymphatics into the venous system and on to the 
heart, where they mingle with the blood current. It is estimated 
that for every 220 pounds body weight there are 7.5 pounds of 
lymph and 6 pounds of chyle formed daily. 



22 Feeds and Feeding. 

38. The blood. — Blood is the circulating medium of tlie body^ 
bearing in its current both, the elements of nutrition and waste. 
The composition of the blood of a horse is given as follows: 

100 Paris Venous Blood. 

Corpuscles 82.62 

Plasma G7.38 

100 Farts Plasma. 

Solids 0.16 

AVal cr 90. S4 

Fibrin 1.01 

Albumen 7. 76 

Fats 0.12 

Extractives 0.40 

Soluble salts 0.64 

Insoluble salts 0.17 

The blood of the horse has been estimated at one-eighteenth 
the weight of the body. Colin places the blood of the ox at one 
twenty-third the body weight. Numerous attempts have been 
made to ascertain the time required for the blood to make a com- 
plete circuit of the body. Vierordt places the period of circula- 
tion for the horse at 31.5 seconds. In the case of the ox it is 
estimated that three pints of blood are driven through the left 
ventricle of the heart at each beat, and, since there are about 
fifty beats per minute, the circulation must be very rai)id. The 
surging movement of the blood through the artery constitutes 
the pulse, and each movement marks a beat of the heart. The 
frequency of the pulse in our domestic animals has been jjlaced 

as follows: Beats 

per minute. 

I n 1 1 1 e h o r se 36 — 40 

In the ox 45 — 50 

In the pig 70 — 80 

In the sheep 70 — 80 

The fre(iuency of the pulse varies greatly with age, as shown by 
the following table: 

Heart iuats per minute. 

Hor.se. Ox. 

Newborn 100 — 120 92 — 132 

One-fourth year old ()8 — 7(5 

One year old 48 — 5<) 50 — ('>S 

Four years of age 38 — 50 56 — 

Aged 32— 40 45— 50 



Mdiy'lcdfioi), Digestion and Assimilation. 



Z-) 



39. Respiration. — We have seen that the blood is being con- 
stantly reinforced with nutriment. At the same time it is taking 
up the waste matter of the body which must be removed. This 
is accomplished in i^art by the lungs, into w^hich the blood is 
forced from the heart. By a mechanical movement of the ribs the 
lungs are expanded and air is drawn into them. Eespiration varies 
greatly in different animals, and at different ages for the same 
animal, as shown in the following table: 

Respirations per minute. 

In young horse 10 — 12 

Adult horse — 20 

Young ox 18 — 20 

Adult ox 15 — 18 

Lamb 16 — 17 

Sheep 13 — 16 

While in the lungs, the blood takes up oxygen from the inspired 
air, and the expired air carries with it carbonic acid and water 
eliminated by the blood. The difference between the air as it 
passes into the lungs and as it comes from them is shown in the 

following table: 

Oxygen. Nitrogen. Carbonic acid. 

Inspired air contains 20.81 79.15 .04 

Expired air contains 16.033 79.557 4.380 

The expired air therefore contains from 4 to 5 per cent, less 
oxygen and that much more carbonic acid than the inspired air. 
Considerable moisture also escapes with the expired air, and a 
small amount of other products in the form of organic matter. 
The amount of watery vapor given off by a man is estimated at 
1.5 pounds per day. 

40. Excretion from the kidneys. — A large portion of the water 
taken into the body is filtered from the blood as it i)asses through 
the kidneys, from which organs it is conveyed to the bladder. 
The amount of water excreted through the kidneys is dependent 
upon the quantity drank and that in the food. 

Boussingault found the composition of the urine of a horse 
fed oats, clover and grass, a cow fed hay and potatoes, and a pig 
fed cooked potatoes, to be as follows: 



24 Feeds and Feeding. 

Horse. Cow. Pig. 

Urea 31.0 18.5 4.9 

Potass, hippurate 4.7 16.5 0.0 

Alkaline lactates 20.1 17.2 

Potass, bicarb 15.5 16.1 10.7 

Mag. carb 4.2 4.7 0.9 

Calcium carb 10.8 0.6 traces. 

Potass, snlpb 1.2 3.6 2.0 

Sodium chlorid 0.7 1.5 1.3 

Silica 1.0 traces. 0.1 

Phosphates 0.0 0.0 1.0 

Water and undetermined substances 910.0 921.3 979.1 

1000.00 1000.00 1000.00 

41. Composition of urine. — The leading characteristic of urine 
is urea, which is the product of the decomposition of the albu- 
minoid substances or tissues of the animal body. The other means 
of escape for this waste are so small that by measuring the nitrogen 
in the urine the nitrogenous waste of the body can be very closely 
determined, — a fact of the highest importance. (57) Most of 
the potash taken from the food passes away in the lu-ine, while 
only a small amount of jjliosi^hates is contained therein. (416) 

42. Excretions of the skin. — Water passes off through the 
sweat glands of the skin, carrying a very small per cent, of solids. 
The moisture given off by the sweat glands of a man is placed at 
from one to two pounds daily, although it may be increased to 
five pounds. The perspiration of animals has not been deter- 
mined. Carbonic acid gas and traces of ammonia and free 
nitrogen arc also given olf by the skin. 

43. Protein nutrition. — The nitrogenous substances of the food, 
as we have seen, are converted into soluble peptones, which are 
taken up by absorption, principally through the portal vein, 
only a small portion entering the lymphatics. In the blood the 
peptone is converted into serum albumen, which is conveyed to 
the capillaries, through a\ Inch it passes, bathing and nourishing 
the tissues. The whole body is made up primarily of cells ot 
various forms, modified to meet each requirement. Nourished 
by the serum albunien, the cells may divide again and again during 



Mastication, Digestion and Assimilation. 25 

growth, or, if no growth occurs, the serum albumen repairs the 
waste of body tissue incident to life and action. 

44. Fat nutrition. — The fats contained in the food are largely 
absorbed unchanged in the form of an emulsion. A small per- 
centage of iiit enters the blood through the blood vessels lining the 
intestines, but the larger portion through the lymphatics. Though 
fats enter the circulation unchanged, they are generally in some 
manner modified by the animal consuming them, so that when 
built into fatty tissue that of each species has its own character- 
istics. 

45. Carbohydrate nutrition. — The carbohydrates are converted 
into some form of sugar, which enters the blood by absorption 
from the intestinal canal. In the liver, sugar is converted into 
glycogen and held as reserve, or it is rapidly oxidized into car- 
bonic acid and water, the intermediate products being unknown. 
Carbohydrates in excess of immediate requirement may be con- 
^•erted into fat and stored in the body. There is no starch in the 
bodv of animals. 



CHArTER III. 

DIGESTION, EESPIEATION AND CALOEi:\rETIlY. 

I. Diffcstibilifi/ of Feeding Stujfs. 

46. Variation in digestibility of feeding stuffs. — The leading 
quality of feeding stuffs is digestibility. ]\[ilk is practically all 
digestible. Most of the nutrients in corn meal yield to the 
digestive solvents, while rye straw is of such character that a 
large portion of its substance is indigestible, and therefore inert 
in the alimentary tract. In studying the digestibility of a given 
feed, the chemist first determines by analysis the percentage of 
each of the nutrients it contains. Weighed quantities of the 
feed are then given to some animal and the solid excrement 
voided during the tiial is saved, weighed and samples of it 
analyzed. Knowing how much of each nutrient was fed and 
how much le-appears in the solid excrement, the difference is 
held to be the portion digested, since it must have been retained 
in the body. 

47. A digestion trial with sheep. — As illustrating the manner 
of conducting digestion trials, the following description is given 
of one conducted by Armsby with sheep at the Wisconsin 
Station. ^ Desiring to ascertain the digestibility of clover hay 
and malt sprouts by sheep, two wethers weighing 87 pounds each 
were selected for the trial. They Avere closely confined in 
separate apartments specially constructed for the purpose, and 
fed from zinc-lined feed boxes arranged to prevent the fodder 
from being wasted. Each day's ration was carefully weighed 
and samples reserved for analysis. The solid excrement as it 
pa.ssed from the wethers was collected by means of rubber-lined 
bags attached to the hind quarters of the animal by a light har- 
ness. These bags were emptied every twenty- four hours and the 

J Kept. 1884. 



Digestion, JRcspiraHon and Calorimetnj. 



27 



contents weighed and sampled for analysis. Feeding progressed 
six days before the experiment began, in order that all residues 
of previous feed might have passed from the alimentary tract. 
During the first period each sheep was fed 700 grams (about 1.5 
pounds) of clover hay dailj-, this allowance being consumed 
without waste. Water was freely supplied. The average amount 
and composition of the food eaten, and the solid excrement 
Aoided daily, are summarized in the following table: 

Digestion trial with slicep fed clover hay, average for one day — 
Wisconsin Station. 





Dry 
matter. 


Protein. 


Crude 
liber. 


Nitrogen 

-free 
extract. 


Etber 
extract. 


Fed 700 grams hay,containing- 

Excreted 610.6 grams dung, 

containing 


Grains. 
586.1 

288.6 


Grams. 

77.7 

40.4 


Grams. 
191.5 

101.5 


Grams. 

276.7 

119.4 


Grams. 
10.7 

7.9 






Digested 


297.5 
50.8 


37.3 
48.0 


90.0 
47.1 


157.3 
56.8 


2.8 


Per cent, digested 


26.2 







The table shows that in the 700 grams of hay fed there were 
r)86.1 grams of dry matter, and in the solid excrement for one 
day, 288.6 grams, leaving a difference of 297.5 grams, or 50.8 i)er 
cent., which is held to be the amount of dry matter digested for 
the first period of the first trial. The average for two trials was 
51.2 per cent. Of the 77.7 grams of protein supplied in the 
ration, 40.4 grams appeared in the solid excrement. The differ- 
ence, 37.3 grams, or 48 per cent., represents the amount of pro- 
tein which must have been digested and taken into the body of 
the sheep from the alimentary tract. In the same manner th(; 
percentage of the other nutrients digested was determined. The 
a\'erage percentage of each nutrient digested in a given feeding- 
stuff is termed the '' coefficient of digestibility," for that nutrient 
and feed. 

48. Digestibility of malt sprouts. — Having ascertained the 
digestibility of clover hay, Armsby added to the ration an allow- 
ance of malt sprouts. The sheep remained in the stanchions as 
before, and were fed 600 grams of closer hay and 175 grams of 



28 



Feeds and Feeding. 



malt sprouts. "Weiglits and analyses of feed and excrement were 
made as before. The digestibility of the malt sprouts as deter- 
mined in this trial is shown in the following table: 

Feeding trial with sheep to ascertain the digestihility of malt sprouts, 
average for one day^s feeding — Wisconsin Station. 





Dry 
matter. 


Protein. 


Crude 
liber. 


Nitrog:en 

-free 
extract. 


Ether 
extract. 


Fed 600 grams hay 


Grains. 

500.9 
154.1 


Grains. 

67.4 
36.8 


Grains. 

163.3 
21.0 


Grams. 

236.3 

87.5 


Grams. 
9.4 


Fed 175 grams malt sprouts... 


2.2 


Total 


655.0 
295.2 


104.2 
41.5 


184. 3 
100.6 


323.8 
129.0 


11.6 


Excreted 681.1 grams dung.... 


5.5 


Digested , total 


359.8 
256.4 


62.7 
33.2 


83.7 
76.8 


194.8 
135.2 


6.1 


Digested from bay 


3.8 






Digested from malt sprouts... 
Per cent, digested 


103.4 
67.1 


29.5 
80.2 


6.9 
32.9 


59.6 
68.1 


2.3 
104.6 







The digestibility of malt sprouts is determined indirectly in 
the following manner: The dry matter fed in the clover hay and 
malt sprouts equals 655 grams. The excreted dry matter equals 
295.2 grams, so that the total quantity digested is the difference, 
359.8 grams. In the previous trial, as the average of two jjeriods, 
it was found that 51.2 per cent, of the dry matter in clover hay was 
digestible. Midtiplying 509 grams by this factor, 25G.4 results, 
which represents the quantity of dry matter in the hay which 
was digested. Subtracting this from 359.8 grams, there is left 
103.4 grams, or 67.1 per cent., which must be the dry matter 
digested from the malt sprouts. In this manner the several 
digestion coefficients for malt sprouts are determined. The table 
reports 104.6 per cent, of the ether extract of the malt sprouts 
digested — an absurdity. Such a result may be due to an error 
in the work, or more probably to the fact that more ether extract 
was digested fiom the clover hay in the second trial than in the 
first one. The statement relative to ether extract in the next 
article may liave a bearing on this result. 

49. Digestibility of food nutrients. — Errors in digestion experi- 
ments arise, among other causes, from the addition of bile prod- 



Digestion, Respiration and Calorimetry. 29 

nets to the excreta as well as gummy substances originating from 
tissue changes of the alimentary tract. 

The digestibility of protein in coarse fodders varies widely, 
ranging from 35 to 80 per cent. Usually the higher the ratio of 
protein to non-nitrogenous constituents in a feed the greater the 
percentage of the protein digested. 

Of the crude fiber from 30 to 70 per cent, is digestible by 
ruminants, while for the pig and the horse it is considerably less. 
The larger utilization of cellulose by ruminants is probably due 
to the fact that the food undergoes more thorough preparation for 
digestion in the primary stomachs. The addition to the ration 
of a food rich in protein aids the digestion of cellulose. 

The sum of the digestible nitrogen-free extract and the digest- 
ible crude fiber about equals the total nitrogen-free extract of any 
given feed. 

The digestibility of ether extract varies greatly in different 
feeding stuffs, ranging from 30 per cent, in straw to over 90 in 
the cereals. The digestibility of the several compounds grouped 
under this term cannot be as accurately determined as in case of 
the other nutrients, owing to a variety of substances appearing 
in the solid excrement, which, although dissolved from it by 
ether, cannot be considered as nutritive material that has escaped 
digestion. The small quantity of the ether extract usually 
present in feeding stuffs also renders the determination of this 
component more liable to error. 

Zuntz and Lehmann report that the work of chewing the food 
and digesting it, in the case of the horse, may represent a consid- 
erable proportion of the nutritive value of the food. The effort 
in chewing hay represents 11.2 per cent., and in oats 2.8 x)er 
cent, of the total energy yielded by the food. 

50. Digestion of coarse fodders. — The leading points of Wolff's 
lucid statements on this subject i are here jd resented, the first ones 
having reference to coarse fodders fed without the addition of 
grain. 

The quantity of fodder supplied the animal does not affect the 
digestibility of the several constituents. Healthy animals under 

1 Farm Foods, English edition. 



30 Feeds and Feeding. 

normal conditions only eat as much fodder as they can properly 
digest, and the digestive fluids are no more effective when operat- 
ing on small than on large quantities. 

Contrary to general opiniouj green fodders are no more digest- 
ible than the same forage when carefully preserved by drying. 
In practice, however, much of the finer parts of the plant is lost 
by breaking off and falling to the ground during the process of 
curing. Dew and rain may also effect changes. The loss of dry 
matter through mechanical waste in curing may amount to 10 
l^er cent., and the digestibility may be reduced from 4 to 5 per 
cent., or still more if bad weather prevails during cming. The 
storage of fodders even under favorable conditions for a long- 
period may decrease their digestibility as well as palat ability. 

The degree of maturity affects the digestibility of plants. At 
jVIoeckern, oxen fed clover hay cut when coming into bloom 
digested 71 per cent, of the protein, when cut at time of full 
bloom 65 per cent., and 59 per cent, when cut toward the end of 
blooming. 

Season, soil and manures influence the digestibility of fodders. 
Hay cut during three successive years from the same field, when 
fed to sheep, showed 60, 64 and 65 per cent., respectively, of 
digestible protein. Crushing, grinding, steaming or fermenting* 
food does not increase its digestibility, although its palatability 
may be thereby improved. At the Moeckern Station, boiled, 
scalded or fermented wheat bran showed decreased digestibility 
when fed to oxen. A keen appetite resulting from hard labor 
does not increase the digestibility of feeds. 

Ruminants — oxen, cows, sheep and goats — digest the same 
kind of fodder equally. Horses digest from 1 to 12 per cent, less 
of the dry matter of hay than ruminants. They digest the pro- 
tein of hay equally well with sheep, but cannot make as nuich 
use of the ether extract. Horses digest from 7 to 10 per cent, 
less nitrogen-free extract than sheep, and as much as 20 per cent', 
less crude fiber. The richer the feeding stuff the more nearly 
does the horse approach the farm ruminants in the powers of 
digestion. Neither the age nor the breed of the animal affects 
the powers of digestion, though single individuals often show 



Digestion^ Respiration and Calorimetry. 31 

striking variations from the normal. The range of digestibility 
due to species, breed, age and live weight does not, under ordi- 
nary conditions, vary more than from 2 to 4 per cent. 

51. Coarse and concentrated feeds combined. — When there is 
added to a sujiply of coarse fodder substances rich in protein, 
such as oil cake, oats, etc., the digestibility of the coarse fodder 
is not thereby increased. The addition of a large quantity of 
carbohydrates, such as sugar and starch, to a ration of coarse 
forage, may reduce the digestibility of the protein and crude 
hber of the forage. The depression • in digestibility caused by 
the addition of the carbohydrates is not ax)i)arent until the added 
starch or sugar exceeds 10 per cent, of the dry matter of the 
coarse forage, but is marked by the time tlie addition reaches 30 
])er cent. For example, at Weeude, when sheep were fed 1.75 
l^ounds of hay and 8 ounces of starch per head daily, the diges- 
tibility of the protein was reduced from 54 to 32 per cent. The 
depression is reduced or suspended hj the addition of a highly 
nitrogenous feeding stuff", such as oil cake. The addition of fat 
to a ration does not decrease the digestibility of the other constit- 
uents. Salt does not affect digestion, though it may increase 
consumption of feed and improve nutrition. 

The student should not confound the digestibility of feeding 
stuffs with their final nutritive effect. While two animals may 
each digest the same amount of nutrients from the same weight 
of a given feed, one may give far better returns for the substances 
taken into the body than the other. The utilization of the 
nutrients of feeding materials is determined by the breed, indi- 
viduality, condition of the animal, etc. 

52. Artificial digestion. — While vigorously prosecuting diges- 
tion investigations with animals, the chemist has not been idle in 
his eiforts to find an easier and more rapid method of reaching 
the same end. Stutzer has proposed a simple method for deter- 
mining the digestibility of protein, by treating the substance 
under investigation with weak solutions of pepsin and afterwards 
of j)ancreatic fluid, care being taken to maintain the digesting 
mass at the normal tempeiatuie of the animal body. The fluids 
named act only on the protein of the food, hence this method 



32 Feeds and Feeding. 

gives only the digestibility of that nutrient. In using this method 
it has been found that the digestibility varies with the length of 
time the solution is allowed to act^ the temperature maintained, 
etc. It is therefore only fairly accurate, but is useful as a quick 
method of determining the relative digestibility of the substances 
under comparison, rather than an absolute one for general guid- 
ance. G-. Kiihn has shown that the results may be reached by 
the use of pepsin solutions only. ^ 

53. Water extracts. — It has been found that the total quantity 
of solid matter which can be extracted from a fodder by the use 
of boiling water measures, with considerable accuracy, the quan- 
tity of digestible nitrogen-free extract which it contains. Some 
of the dissolved matter, however, is protein and ash, so that this 
method is not directly accurate, but a guide rather, for practical 

purposes. 

II. Respiration Studies. 

54. The respiration apparatus. — A ''respiration apparatus" 
is a device for measuring tlie products of respiration of animals 
confined therein. Its leading feature is an air-tight chamber in 
which the animal experimented on is confined, with an inlet for 
supplying fresh air and an outlet for drawing off the air with its 
respiration products. The air entering the chamber as well as 
the gases drawn from it are measured and analyzed, to determine 
the products given off by the subject on trial. The most com- 
plete and satisfactory forms of the respiration apparatus are those 
constructed according to the plan of Pettenkofer of the Physio- 
logical Institute at Miinich, the first of which was built through 
the munificence of the King of Bavaria. There was recently 
constructed at the Wesleyan University, Connecticut, by the 
co-operation of the Storrs (Connecticut) Experiment Station 
and the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
a very complete respiration apparatus especially designed for 
the study of human nutrition. * 

In conducting experiments, animals or men, or both, are placed 
in the respiration chamber. In some cases labor is performed; 

1 Ljindw. Vers. Sta., 44, pii. 1S8-256. 

2 For a popular description of this apparatus and some of the res^ulls 
obtained, see Century ^Magazine, June, 1897. 



Digestion, Respiration and Calorimetry. 33 

at other times tlie enclosed subject is kept as nearly in perfect 
rest as possible, with or without a normal food supply. These 
studies, necessarily difficult, are not only interesting but important 
in furthering our knowledge of the laws of nutrition. 

The respiration apparatus has been used for the study of the 
formation of fat and the decomposition of the nitrogenous com- 
ponents of the body. Used in connection with weighings and 
analyses of food, water, and the solid and liquid voidings, the 
chemist is able to determine accurately what becomes of the nutri- 
ents fed to the animals under trial and the waste products given 
off by them, thereby measuring the effect of any given ration. 

55. An illustration. — The following example, taken from one of 
the earlier experiments by Heimeberg^ at the Weende Station, 
will illustrate the manner of studying the formation of flesh and 
fat in the body of the ox by means of the respiration apparatus 
and digestion experiments. 

The animal experimented on was a full-grown ox, which 
weighed 1,570 pounds when placed in the respiration chamber. 
It was fed the following ration: 11 pounds of clover hay, 13.2 
pounds of oat straw, 8.2 pounds of bean meal, 2.13 ounces of 
salt, and drank on the average 123.7 pounds of water daily. 
The results of one day' s trial, arranged to assist the student in 
understanding the workings of this method of investigation, are 
here presented: 

» Neue Beitrage, Gottingen, 1870, I, p. xix; Krafft, Lohrb. d. Landw., 
Ill, p. 17. 
3 



34 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Digestion trial with ox in respiration apparatus, results for one 
dajj — Weende Station. 



1 kilogram = 


:1000 grams=2.2 


pounds. 








Mineral 

sub- 
stances. 


Carbon. 


Hydro- 
gen. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Oxygen. 


A. Conmimption. 

70. 875 kilograms of feed and 

water, containing 

12.675 kilograms dry 

matter and 58.200 

kilograms water 

7 . 255 kilograms a t m o s- 
pheric oxygen 


Grams. 
890 


Grams. 
5,82;5 


Grams. 
7,215 


Grams. 
310 


Grams. 

56,635 
7,255 














78.130 Total 


890 

575 
305 


5,825 

2,585 
220 

2,670 
20 


7,215 

4,205 
1,480 


310 

105 
170 


63,890 


B. Prochiction and irasfc. 

54 . 550 kilograms e x e r e- 
nient, consisting of 
40.65 kilograms solids 
13.90 kilograms urine 

22 . 545 kilograms r e s p i r a- 
tion products, con- 
sisting of 

9.795 kilograms carb. 
acid.. 


33,175 
11,725 

7,130 


.030 kilograms 
marsli gas 




10 
1,410 

15 






12.720 kilograms water 






11,310 


1.035 kilograms increase in 
body weight, made 
up of 

. 220 kilograms albu- 
minoids 




116 


35 


55 


.010 kilograms min- 
eral substances 


10 




. 280 kilograms fat 


214 


35 
60 




30 


. 525 kilograms water 






465 










78.130 Total 


890 


5,82.5 


7,215 


310 


63,890 







56. Intake of body. — The first division of Ibe table records 
the (*onsuui])tion oi- intake of the body of the steer for one day, 
the results beiu"- stated in kilograms. Eeducing the weight of 
the several substances to pounds^ we have the following: 

Pounds. 

Oxygen taken into blood by way of the buigs 16.0 

Dry matter taken into the alimentary tract 27.8 

Water drank and in food 128.0 



Total intake of body for one day 171.8 



Digestion, Eespiration and Calorimetry. 35 

From tliese data we leam that in twenty-four hours the steer took 
into the blood by way of the lungs 16 pounds of oxygen, and 
into the alimentary tract 27.8 pounds of dry matter and 128 
pounds of water, or 171.8 pounds in all. 

57. Waste products. — The second division of the table treats 
of production and waste. Let us first consider the waste by the 
steer for the day during which the study was conducted. The 
loss to the body through the several channels was as follows: 

Pounds. 

Passed off as solid excrement 89.4 

Passed off as urine 30.6 

Passed off as respiration products 49. 5 

Total waste from bodj* 169.5 

This shows that there passed from the steer as solid excrement 
89.4 pounds, of urine 30.6 pounds, while from the lungs there 
were given off 49.5 pounds of waste products, somewhat more 
than one-half of which was water, and a little less than half car- 
bonic acid. The total outgo from the body for the day under 
study, was as shown above, 169.5 pounds. 

The decomposition of nitrogenous substances in the body is 
calculated from the quantity of nitrogen in the urine. As pro- 
tein contains 16 per cent, nitrogen on the average, the quantity 
of protein corresponding to the nitrogen in the urine is found by 
multiplying by Ye'^, or by 6.25. The table shows that there were 
.170 kilograms of nitrogen in the urine of the ox. Multiplying 
this by 6.25, there results 1.062 kilograms or 2.38 pounds. This 
sum measures both the quantity of nitrogenous nutrients taken 
into the body from the food, and the body tissues which were 
broken down and left the body as waste during the day of the trial. 

58. Flesh production. — From the above we have the following 
in relation to the income and outgo of the body of the steer for 
one day: 

Pounds. 

Total substance passing into the body 171.8 

Total waste leaving the body 169.5 

Amount retained in the body 2.3 



36 FeeiU and Feeding. 

This shows that 2.3 pounds or only 1.3 per cent, of what entered 
the body was retained as a permanent portion thereof, the remain- 
der passing away as w aste. Part of the substance was inert mat- 
ter, and useless, while the larger part was used as fuel for furnishing 
energy to the body, and passed off as waste after being so used. 

Directing our attention to the portion incorporated in the body, 
we learn that 35 grams of nitrogen were not excreted, but retained 
as a portion of the body. Sixteen per cent, of albuminoid sub- 
stances is nitrogen. The albuminoid tissues representing this 
quantity of nitrogen are determined in the following manner; 

Albuminoids 
Nitrogen. Per cent. or lean meat. 

.035 X W = -22 kilograms. 

The albuminoid tissues contain 53 per cent, carbon. Accord- 
ingly, the amount of carbon in tissue built during the day is as 
follows: 
Iiean meat. Per cent. Carbon. 

.22 X T^oV = -116 kilograms. 

The lean meat therefore contained .116 kilograms of carbon. 
There remains .214 kilograms of carbon, which mast have gone 
to form fat. Seventj^-tive per cent, of fat is carbon, — hence the 
following: 

Carbon. Per cent. Body fat. 

.214 -f- -i'^V = .28 kilograms. 

59. Summary of the trial. — From this we learn that there were 

.28 kilograms of fat stored in the body during the day of the trial. 

Arranging these results, together with the mineral matter and 

water retained in the body, for convenient study, we learn that 

the nutrients stored as increase were as follows: 

Pounds. 

. 22 kilograms of albuminoids or lean meat 48 

.28 kilograms of fat 61 

.01 kilograms of mineral matter 02 

.525 kilograms of water 1.17 

Total body increase 2.28 

It was shown that the income to the body exceeded the outgo 
by 2.3 pounds; the table accounts for practically all of this in 



Digestion, Respiration and Calorimctnj. 



37 



the 2,28 pounds of increase. We learn from the above that 
during one day of the experiment the ox took into its body 171.8 
pounds of material in oxygen, water and dry matter, and from it , 
built up 2.28 pounds of body substance, which consisted of .48 
pounds of albuminoids or lean meat, .61 pounds of fot, .02 
pounds of mineral matter, which went mainly to the bones, and 
1.17 pounds of water, placed mostly with the lean meat and, in 
less proportion, with the fatty tissue. 

Where the animal produces other substances than flesh, as in 
the case of sheep and milch cows, the method of calculating 
production is the same as with oxen, though somewhat more 
complicated. 

III. Calorimetry. 

60. Measuring the heat units of feeds. — The calorimeter is a 
device so arranged that when a given substance is burned therein 
the heat given off is taken up by water and can be accurately 
ascertained. While investigations have been in progress with 
the respiration apparatus to determine what becomes of the food 
taken into the body, other workers have endeavored by means of 
the calorimeter to ascertain the heat units of food materials. It 
has been found that the results obtained with the respiration 
apparatus and the calorimeter agree very closely; that is to say, 
in supplying the body with fuel, the protein, fat and carbohy- 
drates of the food have been found to replace each other in almost 
exact proportion to the heat units they evolve when burning. 
Prof. Eiibner found the quantity of material equal to 100 parts 
of fat to be as follows: 

Equivalent for 100 parts of fat as shown by the respiration apparatus 

and calorimeter. 



Nutritive substances, 
water-free. 


As determined by ex- 
periments with animals 
in respiration apparatus. 


As determined by 

burning in the 

calorimeter. 


Lean meat 


243 
232 
234 
256 


235 


iStarch 


229 


Cane su'>'ar 


235 


Grape sugar 


255 







38 Feeds and Feeding. 

By tliis table we learn that 235 parts of lean meat when burned 
in the calorimeter give off as much heat as 100 parts of fat. The 
respiration- apparatus tests place the equivalent at 243 parts — a 
very close agreement with the calorimeter. Starch evolves 
almost as much heat as lean meat, and cane and grape sugar 
somewhat more. 

61. Definition of terms. — The Calorie is a term which desig- 
nates the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one 
kilogram of water 1° Centigrade (or one pound of water 4° 
Fahr. ). If instead of the heat unit we use the unit of mechanical 
energy, the foot- ton, then the Calorie corresponds to 1.53 foot- 
tons; that is, its heat represents the energy required to raise a 
weight of 1.53 tons one foot in height. In the following table is 
summarized the average energy in one gram of each of the classes 
of nutrients. 

Foterdial energy in nutrients of food. 

Calories. Foot-tons. 

lu oue gram of protein 4.1 6.3 

In one gram of fat (ether extract) 9.3 14.2 

In one gram of carbohydrates 4.1 6.3 

These figures mean that when a gram of protein, whether of 
body substance or furnished in feeding stuffs, is consumed in the 
body, it will, if transformed into heat, yield enough heat to raise 
the temperature of 4.1 kilograms of water 1° C, or, if trans- 
formed into mechanical energy, do the work executed by the 
steam-engine in raising a weight of one ton G.3 feet, or 6.3 tons 
one foot. A gram of fat is shown to yield more than twice the 
Calories or foot- tons yielded by a gram of protein or carbohydrates. 

Stated in another way, an ounce of protein in the form of lean 
meat, or one of carbohydrates in the form of starch or sugar, if 
transformed into heat, will raise the temperature of 113 pounds 
of water 1° Fahr., while an ounce of fat yields heat sufficient to 
warm 225 pounds of water one degree. ^ 

1 Tliis description is adapted from tlie report on the fuel value of feed- 
ing stufls by W. O. Atwater, Tliird Annual Report, 8torrs School Agrl. 
Expt. Station, 1890. Tlie interested reader will find the subject most 
entertainingly discussed by the same writer in the Century Magazine 
for July, 1887. 



Digestion, Besph'ation and Calorimetry. 39 

The Calories of food substances show how much heat these will 
impart when utilized for that purpose by the animal, or the the- 
oretical amount of work they can accomplish. 

Eeduced to available form, the Calories in feeding stuffs may 
be stated as follows: 

In one gram. In one pound. 

Digestible protein 4.1 Calories. 1860 Calories. 

Digestible carbohydrates 4.1 Calories. 1860 Calories. 

Digestible fat 9.3 Calories. 4220 Calories. 

Knowing the digestible constituents of any feeding stuff, the 
student can readily determine its potential energy by using the 
above factors. 



CHAPTEE lY. 

ANIMAL NUTEITION. 

I. Formation of Body Tissues. 

62. Formation of tissues. — Since the protein of the food is the 
sole sonrce of nitrogenous substances in the body, it follows that 
the formation of flesh is primarily dependent upon the supply of 
protein in the food. 

In the body there is a slow but continuous breaking down of 
tissue. The materials which have been dissolved from the food 
in the process of digestion are absorbed by the blood, and through 
it distributed to the diflerent parts of the body, where they are 
either oxidized (consumed), and heat and energy produced, car- 
bonic acid and water being given off, or are used for the production 
of components of the body, mainly fat and protein (flesh). The 
decomj)osition of nutritive material in the blood, and of muscular 
and other body tissues, goes on continuously as long as the animal 
lives, whether it is awake or asleei); being, however, more active 
in the former condition. The term "protein consumi)tion " as 
used in this book is applied to tlie quantity of nitrogenous 
materials decomposed in the animal body, whether originating 
from muscular tissue or nitrogenous nutrients in solution in the 
fluids of the body. Protein consumption is measured by the 
amount of nitrogen found in the urine, since practically all the 
nitrogen which leaves the body passes off through this excre- 
tion. (57) 

If the nitrogenous waste results from the destruction of mus- 
cular tissue, as may be the case during starvation, it is spoken 
of as "flesh consumption." Since fat-free muscular tissue has 
been found to contain, on the average, 3.4 per cent, of nitrogen, 
the amount of flesh consumed in the body may be found by multi- 



Animal JSldritmi. 41 

plying- the quantity of nitrogen excreted in the urine by 29.4 

63. The waste of the body. — The food Rupx^lies materials for 
making- good the "w^aste "sv hich the animal sustains through the 
living process. When the suj)ply is liberal and exceeds the 
demands of the system, material may be stored in the body 
by the formation of flesh or fat, and the animal will gain in 
"weight. If the supply is equal to the material broken down, the 
live weight of the animal will remain unchanged. When the 
supply is cut short or entirely -withheld, the tissues of the body 
itself are attacked and the animal loses weight. 

There is a minimum amount of protein absolutely necessary 
for the maintenance of life. This has been determined by experi- 
ments in which dogs, cats, rabbits and other animals have been 
starved, and the daily excretion of nitrogen in the urine deter- 
mined. During the first days of starvation the excretion of 
nitrogen, or, what is the same, the decomposition of protein in 
the body, gradually decreases until after five or six days it 
remains practically constant. The last portion of the protein in the 
fluids of the body has then been drawn upon and the body tissues 
are now being destroyed. After a period of continued starvation 
the sujjply from the latter source will also be exhausted and the 
animal dies, the time being determined by the condition of the 
body at the beginning of starvation. A rise in temperature 
occurs at the begimiing of starvation, followed by a general fall 
until death takes place. Carnivora or flesh-eating animals can 
withstand hunger longer than the Herbivora. While dogs and cats 
have lived until their weights have decreased 33 to 40 per cent., 
horses and ruminants will die when their weight has been reduced 
20 to 25 per cent. ^ The age of the animal also influences the time 
that death occurs from starvation, old animals withstanding the 
eifects of hunger better than young animals. The latter lose 
weight more rapidly and die after a smaller loss of weight than 
tihe former. 2 



J M. Wilckens in v. d. Goltz, Handb. d. ges. Landwirtschaft, III, p. 88. 
2 Halliburton, Chem. Physiology, p. 834. 



42 



Feeds and Feeding. 



II. Exclusive Protein Feeding. 

64. Protein consumption. — In feeding Carnivora it has been 
found that an exchisive jjrotein diet causes an increased decom- 
l>osition of protein in the body, and that the excess does not 
therefore go to form flesh. The following table shows i-esult.s 
obtained hy Yoit with a dog fed varying quantities of meat wliicii 
had been freed from all lat:^ 

Feeding increasing amounts of fat-free meat to dog — Voit. 





Grm 


Grm 


Grm 


Grm 


Grms. 


Grms. 


Grms. 


Grms. 


Grms. 


Fat-free meat eaten 
per (lay 



12 

165 


300 
32 

442 


500 
40 

552 


900 

68 

938 


1,200 

88 

1,214 


1,500 
106 

1,463 


2,000 
144 

1,987 


2,500 
173 

2,387 


2,660 


Urea excreted 


181 


Corresp o n d i u g to 
flesh 


2,498 







The protein consumj)tion with this dog varied from 165 granLS 
(.36 pounds) per day during hunger to nearly 2,500 grams (5.5 
pounds) when the largest amount of protem was fed; that is, 
while fed increasing quantities of lean meat the dog did not'store 
up any of this, but turned it off into the urine as urea. Similar 
experiments with Herbivoia have, in the main, given the same 
results as found with Carnivora. 

From the results given in the last table it is evident that the 
supply of protein in the food will largely regulate the cx)nsump- 
tion of protein in the body, and consequently the quantity of 
nitrogen appearing in the urine. The following is a summary of 
experiments on goats by Stohmann:^ 

1 Armsby, :Mamial of Cattle Feeding, p. 128. 

2 Biologische ^^tudien, Heft 1, p. 121; Armsby, loc. eit., p. 146. 



Aninial Nutrition. 



43 



Food given and protein digested, consumed and stored in the body by 
goats — Stohmann. 



Date of 


Feed per day. 


Protein 


Protein con- 


Gain of 


experiment. 


Hay. 


Linseed 
meal. 


digested per 
day. 


sumption ^ 
per day. 


protein 
per day. 






Grams. 


Grams. 


Grams. 


Grams. 


Grams. 


1 


May 23-29 


1,500 


100. 


111.6 


66.6 


1.9 


2 


June 6-12 


1,4.50 


150. 


12.5.0 


79.4 


9.0 


3 


June 20-26 


1,400 


200. 


132.2 


90.6 


11.1 


4 


July 4-10 


1,350 


2.50. 


1.50.9 


90.1 


23.4 


5 


July 2.5-31 


1,250 


3.50. 


170.5 


101.6 


18.3 


G 


Aug. 8-14 


1,100 


500. 


193.8 


117.9 


27.4 


/ 


Aug. 22-28 


9.50 


6-50. 


221.4 


143.1 


30.6 


8 


Sept. 5-11 


800 


800. 


257.2 


173.7 


27.4 


9 


Sept. 19-25 


1,600 


0. 


92.9 


56.3 


-4.4 


10 


Oct. 3-9 


1,600 


0. 


74.1 


41.9 


6.4 



1 Exclusive of the protein contained in the niillc, which varied but 
slightly. 

We observe that after the quantity of protein digested reached 
150 grams daily there was no increase in the protein stored up in 
the body, even though the amount in the food was still further 
augmented. 

That an exclusi^'e protein diet will not produce body tissue is 
well illustrated in the so-called '' Banting cui-e" for obesity, 
where the patient is put on a meat and fruit diet, especially the 
former, with no potatoes, butter, or bread. 

Pfliigeri has shown that a hard- worked dog fed on ''almost 
fat-free ' ' meat diet can live on that food alone for seven months, 
and on the basis of this experiment concludes, contrary to the 
views of Voit and other authorities, that nitrogenous compounds 
may sustain life for an indefinite period. 

65. Influence of previous feeding. — Beside the supply of pro- 
lein in the food, the protein consumption in the body is dependent 
upon another factor, viz., the condition of the body of the animal 
as a result of previous feeding. It clearly appears from experi- 
ments made in this line^ that when a change in diet occurs the 
consumption of protein will increase or decrease according to the 



1 Archiv d. ges. Physiologie, 52 (1892), p. 2. 

2 Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding, 1887, p. 129. 



44 



Feeds and Feeding. 



changes made in the supi)ly of protein in the food. Giv^en a 
supply of protein larger than is necessary to maintain the body 
tissues, and there will in a few days be an equilibrium between 
the supply and consumption of protein in the body, the time 
varying with different animals and with the body condition of 
each animal. The equilibrium will be reached sooner with a fat 
animal than with a lean one, and sooner when the animal receives 
food rich in protein and poor in fat than when the opposite occurs. 

III. Influence of Other Nutrients on Protein Consumption. 

66. Influence of fat. — When fed alone, fat does not decrease 
protein consumption in the body, as is shown in the following 
results by Voit with a starving dog:^ 



Feeding fat 


only. 


to a starving 


dog — 


-Voit. 








Grams 


Gi-ams 


Grams 


Grams 


Grams 


Grams 


Grams 


Fa.t per day 



170 


100 
185 


200 
155 


300 

187 


300 
105 


340 
205 


350 


Protein consumption 


291 







The influence of fat on protein consumption rather than 
decreasing it seems to have increased it slightly. See also table 
in Article 82. 

67. Influence of carbohydrates. — When fed alone, carbohydrates 
have no iirfluence on the consumption of protein and thus act in 
the same way as fat. The same amount of protein is decomposed 
in the body when nothing but carbohydrates are fed as when no 
food whatever is given. 

68. Influence of mixed diet. — When the animal is fed on a 
mixed diet containing fat, carbohydrates and protein, the con- 
sumption of protein depends on the supply of jjrotein in the food, 
as in exclusive protein feeding. The following experiment- 
serves as an example: 



» Zeitvschr. f. Biologic, V, p. 329. Armsby, loc. cit., p. 136. 
^Arrasby, loc. cit., p. 137. 



Animal Xairltion. 45 

Influence of mixed diet on protein consumption — Voit. 





Grams 


Grams 


Grams Grams 


Grams 


Gram^s 


„ , fFat 


2,50 
150 
233 


300 
176 
259 


2-50 
250 
270 


200 
500 
502 


200 
800 

773 


250 


F^^*^ tMeat 


1,500 


Consumption of protein per day.. 


1,381 



It will be noticed tliat with the same quantities of fat in the 
food, the i^rotein consumption is larger where the amount of meat 
fed is larger; for instance, in the first, third and sixtli experi- 
ments, 250 grams of fat were fed along with 150, 250 and 1500 
grams, respectively, of meat. The consumption of protein in 
the body of the animal was, in the order given, 233, 270 and 1,381 
grams. The increase in protein consumption does not, however, 
keep pace with the increased supply of protein in the food, and 
the fat evidently has protected to some extent the protein in the 
animal body from consumption. It has been found in the same 
way that carbohydrates also decrease the protein consumption in 
the body when fed in connection with protein. Thus they save 
the protein of the body from decomposition, and as a result more 
of the protein of the food can be used for the formation of flesh 
in the body. The following experiment by Voit may be cited to 
illustrate this important fact:^ 

Mesults of feeding meat and fat — Voit. 



Date. 


Food. 


Urea 
per day. 


Protein 

consumption 

in body. 


Difference between 
supply and con- 
sumption of protein. 




INIeat. 


Fat. 


July 31 

Aug. 1 

Aug. 2 

Aug. 3 


Grams. 

1,000 
1,000 
1,000 
1,000 


Grams. 



100 
300 




Grams. 

81.7 
74.5 
69.3 
81.2 


Grams, 

1,140 

1,042 

970 

1,134 


Grama. 
—140 

+30 
—134 



We see from the above that when on an exclusive meat diet 
the animal lost 140 grams of protein per day, while when 300 
grams of fat were added to the same quantity of meat as before it 
gained 30 grams. We thus learn that the addition of fat (as 

* Armsby, loc. cit., p. 138. 



46 



Feeds and Feeding. 



also carbohydrates) to a protein diet makes the consumption of 
protein smaller than it would be without this addition. The fat 
as well as the carbohydrates preserve the protein from decomposi- 
tion, thereby favoring the formation of new body tissue. 

The following experiments with a dog by Voit also illustrate 
this, which is also proved by many others r^ 

Influence of carbohydrates fed in connection ivith protein^ on protein 
consumption — Voit. 



Date of experiments. 


Food. 


Protein 


Meat. 


Carbohydrates. 


consumption. 


June 23-JuIy 2, 1859 


Grams. 

500 
500 

800 
800 
800 

1,000 
1,000 
1,000 

1,500 
1,500 

2,000 
2,000 


Grams. 

100-300 




100-400 





100-400 





200 


200-300 


Grams. 
502 


July 2-5, 1850 


564 


July 4-10, 18G4 


826 


July 10-19, 1864 


763 


July 19-20, 18(54 


895 


July 23-26, 1864 


1,028 


July 26-28, 1864 


902 


July28-Aug. 1, 1864 


1.112 


June 29-Julv 8, 1863 


1,599 


July 8-13, 1863 


1,454 


Jan. 6, 1859 


1,991 


Jan. 7-11, 1859 


1 , 792 







69. Teachings of the above in feeding practice. — From what we 
have learned we should expect the best results when the ration 
fed contains a sufficient supply of protein with a large proportion 
of carbohydrates to protein, i e., a wide nutritive ratio (132), 
and this we find borne out by the results of numerous experi- 
ments with all kinds of animals. We quote the following experi- 
ments on sheep by Schulze and Marcker, arranged by Armsby 
according to the nutritive ratios in the different rations. The 
protein in the wool, amounting to about five grams, is not 
included in the figures for protein consumption. - 



» Zeitschrift f. Biologie, V, p. 434; Armsby, loc. cit., p. 150. 

* Journ. f. Landw. XVIII, i)p. 1 et seq; Armsby, loc. cit., p. 153. 



Animal Nutrition. 



47 



Influence of wide and narrow ratios on flesh production — ScJiulze 

and Maerclcer. 



No. of experi- 
ment. 


Protein 
digested 

Grams. 


Nutritive 
ratio. 


Protein 
consump- 
tion. 

Grams. 


Gain of 
protein. 

Grams. 


Gain of protein 
in per cent, of 
am't digested. 


Experiment 


6. 

12 

3 

11 

2 

10 

8 


30.6 


1 


:17.4 


24.3 


1.4 


4.6 


P^xperiment 
Experiment 
Experiment 
Experiment 
Experiment 
Experiment 


67.9 
59.5 
68.1 
59.7 
72.5 
85.8 


1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 


:9.4 

:8.9 
:8.6 
:8.6 
:8.1 
: 7.7 


54.8 
45.9 
56.2 
49.1 
54.7 
63.6 


8.0 
9.0 
6.8 
5.5 
12.7 
17.3 


11.8 
15.1 
10.0 
9.2 
17.5 
20.1 


Average . . . 


68.9 




54.1 


9.9 


14.0 






Experiment 
Experiment 
J^^xperiment 


9 
17 


116.8 
156.6 
248.3 


1 
1 

1 


:4.9 
:3.7 
: 2.2 


96.0 
142.5 
237.6 


15.9 
9.0 
6.1 


13.7 

5.8 
2.5 


Average . . . 


173.9 




158.7 


10.3 


7.3 







Tlie above experiments were not all conducted with the same 
animals, and therefore cannot be safely compared with one 
another. We notice, however, that supplying a small amount of 
protein with a large amount of carbohydrates, as in Experiment 
6, gives a poor gain of protein and also a low percentage gain of 
protein digested in the food; a medium quantity of protein with 
a liberal supply of carbohydrates as given in the first • group of 
experiments causes a greater consumption of protein in the body, 
and a larger percentage of digested protein. When we come to 
the last group of experiments, where the digestible carbohydrates 
constitute from 4.9 to 2.2 times the quantity of protein present, 
we again obtain poor results, there being a large waste of protein 
in the body, and a small gain, both relatively and absolutely, for 
the total protein supplied. Comparing Experiments 3 and 9, if we 
may safely do so, we observe that the same gain of protein to the 
body of the animal was obtained in one case from a little more than 
one-third of the quantity of digestible protein that was fed in the 
other case. At the same time the consumption of protein was 
more than three times as large in the latter case as in the former. 



48 Feeds and Feeding. 

70. Relative effects of fat and carbofiydrates. — Experiments by 
a large number of investigators on the influence of fat or carbohy- 
drates on protein consumption show that the two classes of nutrients 
are of practically equal value, pound for pound, for this purpose, 
so that so far as saving jirotein in the body is concerned they may 
replace one another. This is an important fact, and shows that 
the relative fuel value of these two grand divisions of food sub- 
stances is not a measure of their comparative nutritive effect. 
(60) 

The importance of the high value of carbohydrates in the 
formation of flesh is evident. Feeds containing much fat are 
comparatively costly, are difficult of digestion by Herbivora, and 
an undue amount of them may prove injurious. On the other 
hand, the carbohydrates are contained in large proportions in all 
the common fodders, ai*e low-priced and are readily consumed 
and digested by Herbivora. The carbohydrates in the food of 
Herbivora effect what fat does with the Carnivora; they decrease 
protein consumption and enable the animal to subsist on a much 
smaller quantity of nitrogenous material than would otherwise be 
necessary. 

71. Influence of amides on protein consumption. — It is now fairly 
well established that a large majority of the amides found in plants 
are nutrients proper, that is, when fed they enter the system and 
are oxidized in the same way as other food nutrients. The 
experiments of Hermann in feeding a dog with gelatine and 
tyrosin, a common amide, show that the two feeds can sustain 
life and even cause a production of flesh. ^ 

Asparagin, an amide present in most young plants, has rei)eat- 
edly been shown ^ to cause a gain of protein in the body when fed 
with a fodder poor in protein. 

Experiments by Zuntz, ^ Potthast,* and Weiske and Schulze' 
are in accordance with the above, and prove that asi^aragin is a 
nutrient, and that it saves muscular tissues from decomposition. 



1 Vierteljahressehr. der Naturf. Ges. in Ziiricb XXI, p. 36. 

^ Ariusby, loe. eit. p. 163, 

3 Jahresb. d. Thier Cliemie 12, p. 422. 

* Jahresb. d. Tliier Chemie 13, p. 344. 

^ Zeitschr. f. Biologic 20, p. 277. 



Animal Nutrition. 49 

It follows, therefore, that in some of tlieir functions at least, amides 
may replace albuminoids. It has been found also by indirect 
experiments that equally good results have been obtained, where 
amides have been substituted for part of the albuminoids in the 
ration for growing animals and milch cows, as were obtained 
when albuminoids only were fed. In corroboration of the above 
we have the similar feeding value of corn silage and a correspond- 
ing quantity of diy fodder corn. (655) Silage often contains 
nearly half its nitrogen in amide form, while dry fodder corn 
has not more than from 12 to 15 per cent, of its nitrogen in the 
form of amides. 

72. Influence of salt on protein consumption. — Experiments by 
Yoit with dogs, and by Weiske with sheep, have shown that a 
moderate addition of salt to the fodder increases the activity of 
the secretion of the body juices and their circulation, and con- 
sequently increases the protein consumption in the body. Salt 
has a stimulating influence on the appetite of the animal, facili- 
tates the passage of albuminoids from the digestive canal into the 
blood, and in general increases the energy of the vital processes. 
The feeding of salt is therefore especially in place with horses, 
young animals and milch cows when fed to their full capacity. 

Another effect of salt is to increase the excretion of urine. If 
after supplying salt the animal is prevented from drinking water, 
then water which would otherwise pass off through the lungs and 
skin will be diverted to the kidneys, and if the supply from this 
source is not sufficient, water will further be drawoi from the body 
tissues. The live weight of the animal can therefore shrink 
rapidly when salt is administered freely and little water is given; 
afterwards, when water is offered, much will be drank, and this, 
returned to the digestive tract and tissues, will cause the animal 
to increase rapidly in weight. 

73. Influence of water on protein consumption. — Abnormally 
large quantities of water cause a waste of nutrients in the bodies 
of animals through increased protein consumption. Voit has 
shown an increase in protein consumption of 25 per cent, from 
this source in case of a fasting dog, and Henneberg found an. 

4 



50 Feeds and Feeding. 

increase of 5.8 per cent, in the case of oxen. ^ We are taught from 
these investigations that everything which gives rise to excessive 
drinking of water by growing, and especially fattening, animals, 
should be avoided; as, too high stall temperature, too much salt, 
too great exj)osure, or suj)plying foods carrying too much water. 
The normal ratio of dry matter in food to water (that in food 
included) is about 1 : 4 for cattle, and 1 : 2 for sheeji. 

II. The Fat of the Body. 

74. Body fat from fat in the food. — According to the teachings 
of Yoit, AVollf, and other authorities, the fat stored in the animal 
body may originate from three sources, viz. : directly from the fat 
of the food, from the carbohydrates, and from the decomposition 
of protein. 

The fat of the food which has been acted uj)on by the digestive 
tluids in tlie intestines may be directly stored in the body of 
animals when supj^lied in large quantities, as has been con- 
clusively shown in the case of Carnivora. Experiments in this 
line have been conducted mostly with dogs, at the Physiological 
Institute at Municli. Dogs have been starved for a long time 
until tlie supply of fat in the body had entirely disappeared, as 
shown by the increased decomposition of protein after that time. 
When this stage was reached they were fed for several days 
large quantities of fat and only a little meat. When dogs so fed 
were slaughtered, it was found that fat had been deposited in the 
lungs and in the body tissues in quantities ftirger than could be 
accounted for by the decomposition of the meat fed. 

Lebedeff and Munk- fed a dog mutton suet, and later rape oO, 
for a long time and in large quantities, and found that the fat 
deposited in the body was more like mutton suet or rape oil in its 
chejnicul properties than normal dog fat. In other experiments 
this could not be proved for the reason that the fatty matters sup- 
plied were decomposed more easily in the body of the animal 
than the fat originating from other sources. 

75. Feeding fatty acids. — Munk^ showed that neutral fat may 
be formed in tlie animal body resulting from the feeding of free 

" Armsby, Msinual of Cattle Feedinsr, p. 135. 
^ Munk, Pliysiolooie d. Mcnschen, is88, p. 273. 
" Jiiodcrnuuin's CViitralbhitt, XIII (18cS4), p, lOG. 



Animal JVutrition. 51 

fatty acids. He fed a starved dog lean moat and a large quantity 
of fatty acids prepared from mutton suet. The animal, wliich. 
had shrunk 32 per cent, in weight during nineteen days, was fed 
3,200 grams of flesh and 2,850 grams of fatty acids in fourteen 
days, and increased 17 per cent, in weight during this period. 
When killed, a well-developed layer of fat was found under the 
skin, and also large deposits of fat on the internal organs. By 
use of the knife, 1,100 grams of fat were separated, which 
resembled mutton suet, and according to chemical analysis must 
have contained at least 96 per cent, of neutral mutton suet. It is 
known that fatty acids are formed from the fat of the food in the 
digestive processes through the action of the pancreatic juice, 
and the above experiment therefore practically proves that the 
fat stored in the body of animals may be derived from the fat of 
the food. Munk's findings have recently been corroborated by 
Walker, also in experiments with dogs. ^ 

While experiments like those quoted above cannot be made 
with Herbivora, there is sufficient evidence to establish the fact 
that the fat of the food may, under favorable conditions, directly 
contribute to the body fat and milk fat of animals. As will be 
seen later on, however, the fat in the animal body is not derived 
from one component of the food only, but generallj' from both the 
fat and carbohydrates, or possibly these two in conjunction with 
the protein of the food, according to the conditions of feeding and 
the relative amounts of the different comi)onents fed. 

76. Fat from carbohydrates. — Liebig maintained as early as 
1842 that the fat of the Herbivora must be derived in a great 
measure from the carbohydrates of the food, but considered that 
it might also be produced from its nitrogenous comj)onents. The 
correctness of this view was questioned by leading scientists of 
that time, although evidence in its favor was accumulating. In 
1852 Lawes and Gilbert published the results of their pig-feeding 
experiments, showing that a large portion of the fat stored in 
the body of a fattening pig must come from other sources than 
the fatty matter of the food. These investigators calculated the 

1 Centralbl. f. Phvsiologie, IV, p. 590; Jahresbr. d. Thier Chemie, 21, 
1>. 32. 



52 



Feeds and Feeding. 



total dry and organic matter, mineral matter, non-nitrogenous 
constituents, protein and fat stored in a fat pig in one of their 
experiments, for each 100 pounds of these constituents consumed 
as food, with the results shown below. 

Siibstatices stored, voided, etc., by a fattening/ pig for each 100 
pounds eaten — Rothamsted Fxperiment Station. ^ 





Consumed 
as food. 


Stored up in 
the animal. 


Expired, per- 
spired, or voided 


Total dry substance 


Lbs. 

100 
100 
100 

100 
100 
100 


Lbs. 

15.04 

2.19 

15.59 

17.74 

8.35 
407.00 


Lbs. 
84.96 


Mineral matter. 


97.81 


Organic matter 


84.41 


Non-nitrogenous constitu- 
ents 


82.26 


Nitrogenous constituents 

Fatty matter 


91.65 







In other experiments these investigators found from four to 
five times as much fat stored in the bodies of fattening pigs as 
had been supplied in the food. In spite of the evidence accumu- 
lated through this and other experiments, the view that fat may 
be formed from carbohydrates was opposed by many scientists 
until late years, but the question may now be considered settled. 
Of the large number of experiments bearing on this most important 
subject, only a few can be here noted. We select late contribu- 
tions, in which all the precautions known to modern experimenters 
in animal physiology have been observed. 

Kern 2 found that on an average at least 9,730 grams of fat had 
been stored in the bodies of two full-grown fattening sheep during 
70 days' feeding, and that only 6,872 grams could be accounted 
for as the maximum amount formed from the digestible fat and 
protein in the food combined. It thus appears that 2,858 grams, 
or 29.4 per cent, of the total quantity of fat stored in the body, 
must have been derived from carbohydrates. 

Soxhlet^ fed three full-grown pigs of the same age for about 

> On tlie Composition of Foods in Relation to Respiration, and the 
Feeding of Animals, Report British Asso. f. Adv. of Science, 1852, p. 29; 
Bui. 22, Office of Expt. iSta., pp. 23-5-82. 

■^ Journ. f. Landw. 26, p. 549. 

•J Jahresb. Agr. Chemie, 1881, p. 434. 



Animal Nutrition. 



53 



eleven montlis on the same preparatory ration of 2.2 to 3.3 pounds 
of barley meal per day, and during the five days preceding the 
experiment proper, 4.4 pounds of rice meal. At this time tiie 
pigs weighed 219, 220 and 213 pounds. One of the pigs was then 
killed and its body analyzed, while the others were put on a ration 
of 4.4 pounds of boiled rice, and later on 3.3 pounds of rice, with 
some meat extract, both of which foods are almost free from 
fat^ One of these animals was killed after 75 days, and the other 
after 82 days of such feeding, and their bodies analyzed as in the 
ease of the first animal. On the assumption that the composi- 
tion of the bodies of all the pigs was the same when the first pig 
was killed, the investigator found the quantity of fat formed in 
the bodies of the two animals and its source to be as shown below: 

Feeding trial with pigs to shoio formation of fat from 
carbohydrates — Soxhlet. 



Pig II. 



Pig III. 



Fat formed in body during experiment 

Taken up in the food 

Formed from components not fat in the food. 

Nitrogen in the food 

Protein production 

Fat formed through decomposition of protein.* 
Fat fonned from carbohydrates 



Ealograms. 

10.082 
.300 
9.782 
1.589 
3.462 
1.779 
8.003 



Kilograms. 

22.180 
.340 

21.840 
1.810 
7.169 
3.685 

18.155 



* Protein consumed X 51.4. (78) 

Four to six times as much fat was consequently formed in the 
bodies of these animals as could have been derived from the fat 
and protein of the food. Even if there was some difference 
in the condition of these animals at the end of the prelimin- 
ary feeding, it could not be large enough to overthrow the 
conclusion that the carbohydrates were the source of the greater 
portion of the fat produced during the experiment. 

Meissl and Strohmer, ^ also experimenting on swine, fed two 
kilogi-ams of rice daily to a one-year old pig weighing 309 
pounds. During a part of the time the pig was confined in a 
Pettenkofer respiration apparatus and the respiration products 
determined. Of the data obtained the following are reproduced: 

» Jahresb. d. Thier Cheraie, 13, p. 39. 



54 Feeds and Feeding. 

Carbon, Nitrogen, 

grams. grains. 

Digested from the food 765.37 18.67 

Outgo in respiratory and excreted products... 476.15 12.59 



Eemaining in the body of the animal 289. 22 6. 08 

The surplus of nitrogen corresponds to the formation of 38 
grams of protein, (58) containing 201 grams of carbon; there is 
then left for the formation of fat from the carbon surplus 269.12 
grams. This would be contained in 269.12x1.3, (58) or 349.9 
grams of fat. The total quantity of fat in the food amounted to 
7.9 grams, so that if this was digested and deposited in the body, 
342 grams of fat must have been formed from other sources. The 
nitrogen excreted as urea showed a decomposition of 65.4 grams 
of protein in the body of the animal. This quantity of protein 
could at best form no more than 65.4 x .514, (78) or 33.6 grams 
of fat, leaving 308.4 grams of fat deposited in the body to be 
derived from carbohydrates. Seven to eight times as much fat, 
therefore, originated from this source as could have been formed 
from the protein and the fat in the food. 

The formation of fat from carbohydrates in the nutrition of 
ruminants, especially cattle, is conclusively proved by the results 
of experiments conducted by G. Kiihn during 1882-90. ^ 

77. Formation of fat in milk. — Collier^ has shown in the case of 
a herd of pure-bred cows that the fat in the food was sufficient to 
account for the fat produced in the milk during all but the first two 
niontlis of Iheir lactation period. The average ratio of fat in food 
to fat in milk for the whole period of lactation for all cows 
was 121 : 100. It should be remembered, however, that the fat 
in the food consumed by the cows was not wholly digested, and 
was, moreover, the '^ crude fat" or ether extract of chemical 
analysis. This extract contains chlorophyll and other impurities 
dissolved from the fodders by the ether in the process of analysis. 
Allowing 17.4 per cent, for impurities. Collier says there is still 
enough fat in the food to account for the fat recovered in the milk. 

The experiments with milcli cows haAC not given as decisive 

» Landw. Vers^ 44, i^p. 1-^Sl. 

2N. Y. Expt. Station (Geneva), ISOl, p. 120. 



Animal Nutrition. 55 

results as those made with sheep, pigs, geese and ducks, some of 
which have been reported in the preceding pages; ^ but as the 
formation of fat from carbohydrates has been established in the case 
of other animals, it follows that cows also have the same ability, 
since the nutritive processes are essentially the same in all the 
higher animals. 

The formation of fat from carbohydrates was long considered 
impossible because no intermediate steps in the transformation 
were known. Lately, however, it has been found that butyric, 
capronic and higher solid fatty acids are formed from carbohy- 
drates in putrefactive processes. We have seen that the fatty 
acids are readily taken up by the animal system and changed into 
fats, which may be deposited in the body or oxidized, according 
to the supply of nutrients and the nutritive condition of the 
animal. (75) This being true, there is no theoretical difficult}^ in 
the way of the formation of the fat of milk from carbohydi-ates. 

78. Fat from protein. — It has long been known that fatty acids 
may be formed from protein substances in putrefactive processes, 
both in the animal body and elsewhere, and also through oxidizing 
agents. In certain diseases, especially cases of phosphorus poison- 
ing, fatty degeneration will occur in the body; the muscles waste 
and a waxy fat appears in their stead, and is also deposited on the 
internal organs. In one case the dry matter in the liver of a man 
who died from phosphorus poisoning contained the enormous 
amount of 76.8 per cent, of fat. ^ In an exj)eriment by Bauer, ^ 
a dog was poisoned with i)hosphorus after having been starved 
twelve days. It died seven days later. The excretion of urea 
was quite constant from the fifth to the twelfth day of the experi- 
ment, amounting to 7.8 grams daily. After the poisoning had 
begun, the excretion increased until it amounted to 23.9 grams 
per day, i. e., three times the normal amount. It was ascertained 
with another dog treated the same way, but kept in a respiration 
apparatus, that the excretion of carbonic acid and the amount of 
oxygen taken up decreased one-half after the phosphorus feeding 

1 For a review of the extensive literature on the subject up to August, 
1881, Si>e B. Schulze, Landw. .Jahrb., II, p. 57. 
^ Wolff, Landw. Fiitterungslehre, 1888, p. 44. 
3 Zeitschr. f. Biologie, VII, p. 7G; Volt, Physiologie, p. 248. 



56 Feeds and Feeding. 

began. In this case there was a greater decomposition of protein 
into urea and fat, with a smaller absorption of oxygen, and con- 
sequently a decreased oxidation of the fat, both processes com- 
bining to produce fat in the body. The muscles of the poisoned 
dog contained 42.4 per cent, of fat, and the liver 30 per cent., or 
three times more than was present in the normal nutrition of the 
dog, and at least ten times more than would have been found after 
twenty days of starvation, if phosphorus had not been administered. 
According to Henneberg, ^ 100 pounds of protein will form 
33.45 povmds of urea on decomposition; the remainder, 66.55 
pounds, after uniting with 12.3 parts of water, may form 51.4 
pounds of ftit and 27.4 pounds of carbonic acid. The maximum 
quantity of fat which protein can form under the most favorable 
conditions is, therefore, 51.4 per cent. 

III. Formation of Fat in the Body. 

79. Concerning fat. — Having ascertained the sources of fat in 
the animal body, we next consider the principles governing its 
formation and consumiDtion. The formation of fat in the body 
will take place when the supply of nutrients in the food exceeds 
the immediate demands of the system. To study the effect of 
single nutrients on fat formation and consumption, we follow the 
plan employed in the study of protein consumption, and investi- 
gate the conditions which are most favorable to the formation of 
fat in the animal body and least favorable to its consumption. 

80. Feeding with fat alone. — While exclusive protein feeding 
induces only protein consumption in the body, and does not con- 
tribute to the formation of flesh, an exclusive fat diet has no 
influence on the decomposition of fat in the body, the same amount 
being deposited whether much or little fat is fed. A dog experi- 
mented with by Pettenkofer and Voit lost 96 grams of fat daily dur- 
ing hunger. When 100 grams of fat were fed daily, an average of 
07 grams of fat was oxidized, showing that the loss of fat in the 
body was barely covered by the feeding of fat. 2 A relatively 
larger decomposition of fat takes place in the bodies of very fat 

' Landw. Vcrsuchs-Stationen, XX, p. 394. 
* Voit, riiysiologio, p. 12cS. 



Animal JS'utrition. 



animals than in lean ones. This partially explains why the 
fattening of animals grows more difficult during the last stages of 
the fattening period. (565) 

81. Feeding protein alone. — Large quantities of protein protect 
the body fat from oxidation, as will be seen by the following 
experiment by Pettenkofer and Voit^ with a dog fed exclusively 
on fat-free meat, and kept in a respiration apparatus: 

Feeding fat-free -meat to dog in respiration apparatus — Pettenkofer 

and Voit. 



Meat fed. 



Grams, 



500 

1,000 

1,500 

l,5fX) 

1,800 

iJ,000 

2,500 



Protein con- 
sumption. 



Grams. 

16.5 
599 
1,079 
1,499 
1,500 
1,757 
2,044 
2,512 



Gain (+) or loss 
(— ) of flesh 



Grams. 

—16.5 

— 99 

— 79 

+ 1 



+ 43 

— 44 

— 12 



Grain (-f) or loss 
(—) of body fat. 



Grams. 

—95 

—47 
—19 

+29 
+ 4 

+ 1 

+58 
+57 



The increased feeding of fat- free meat caused an increased con- 
sumption of protein, but the decomj^osition of fat was checked by 
feeding 1,500 grams (about 3.3 pounds) of fat-free meat per day, 
imd where larger quantities of fat-free meat were fed the animal 
was able to lay on fat. The consumption of protein was at the 
same time greatly decreased. 

82. Feeding both protein and fat. — The following experiments 
by Pettenkofer and Voit 2 show the influence of different quanti- 
ties of fat and meat on the decomposition of protein and fat in 
the body of a dog. Comparing the data given in the table, we 
notice the influence of the feed in the different combinations. 
Where the same quantity of protein was fed in the form of meat, 
with vai-ying quantities of fat, the gain in body fat was larger 
when the largest quantities of fat were fed, and the gain was, as 
;». rule, proportional to the quantity fed. AVith a liberal supply 



»Voit, ibid., p. 116. 

' Zeitscbr. f. Biologic, IX, p. 30; Voit, Physiologic, p. 134. 



58 



Feeds and Feeding. 



of protein, as in Experiments 5 and 9, about as much protein was 
left in the body as was supplied in the fat of the food. From 
this it api^ears that the body fat formed from the protein in the 
food is less stable than that derived from the fat of the food, and 
that fat derived from protein will be decomposed more easily in 
the body than the fat of the food. 

Results of feeding meat and fat to a dog — Pettenlcofer and VoiL 





Food. 


Changes in the body. 


Expt. 
No. 


Meat. 


Fat. 


Protein. 


Fat. 




Consump- 
tion. 


Gain. 


Consumption. 


Gain. 


1 


Grams. 

400 

500 

500 

800 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 


Grams. 

200 
100 
200 
350 

30 

60 
100 
100 
150 


Grams. 

4-50 

491 

517 

635 

1,457 

1,501 

1,402 

1,451 

1,455 


Grams. 

— 50 

+ 9 

— 17 
+165 
+ 43 

— 1 
+ 98 
+ 49 
+ 45 


Grams. 

159 

66 

109 

136 



21 

9 



14 


Grams. 
41 


o 


34 


3 


91 


4 


214 




32 


6 


39 




91 


8 


109 


9 


136 







83. Feeding with protein and carbohydrates. — For information 
regarding this subject, as in the preceding ones, we have recourse 
to the experiments of Pettenkofer and Voit. ^ 

Feeding protein and carbohydrates to a dog — Pettenkofer and Voit. 



Food. 


Amount of 
protein de- 
composed 
calculated 
from urea 
excreted. 


Protein 

gained or 

lost by the 

body. 


Amount 
of carbo- 
hydrates 
decom- 
posed. 


Fat. 


Flesh 


Star(;li 


Sugar 


Fat 


From 
fat of 
food. 


Lost 
from 

the 
body. 


Derived 
from 
food 
other 

than fat 






379 
()08 
211 




17 
22 

To 
"e" 

6 

li" 

4 
10 


211 

193 

436 

393 

413 

568 

537 

608 

1475 

1469 

2512 


-211 
-193 

- 36 

+ V 

- 13 

- 68 

- 37 

+192 
+ i-> 
+331 

+ v^ 


379 
608 
211 
227 
344 
167 
182 
379 
172 
379 



+17 
+22 
-10 




24 






oo 


400 




- 8 
-2.5 




400 


227 




4(J0 


344 
167 


+ «5 

+ ■5 


39 


500 






20 


500 


182 




16 


800 


379 
172 
379 


+14 

+ 4 
+10 




55 


1500 






43 


1800 






112 


2^500 






57 

















^ Loc. cit., p. 145. 



Animal Nutrition. 59 

Even when the food given consisted of non- nitrogenous mate- 
rials only, there was a laying- on of fat; when only protein was 
fed, the excretion of urea was increased proportionately, and there 
was a small production of fat, which may have been derived from 
the small amount of fat always present in lean meat. 

Yoit found from a number of experiments that carbohydrates 
cause a decrease of fat consumption in the body, and that they 
are oxidized in preference to the body fat. If enough carbohy- 
drates are fed with the protein, all the fat that may have origi- 
nated from the i^rotein may be deposited as body fat. If the 
quantity of carbohydrates fed is increased beyond this point, 
there will be no further laying-on of fat, the excess of carbohy- 
drates being bui-ned. In this particular the carbohydrates act 
differently from fat fed in conjunction with i)rotein, since the 
more fat the animal can be induced to eat the larger will be the 
quantity of fat deposited. 

Voit's position, that even the largest quantities of carbohydrates 
fed in connection with protein are decomposed in the animal 
body, is held untenable by Pfiiiger, ^ who maintains that if an 
amount of fat or starch above the needs of the system be fed to 
an animal whose nitrogen income and outgo has been brought to 
a state of equilibrium, the nutritive balance will not be influenced 
thereby; i. e., the excretion of urea and oxidation of carbon will 
go on without increase, the excess of fat or starch passing off 
undigested. 

84. Relative value of fat and carbohydrates. — In experiments 
with fat and carbohydrates for fat production in the animal body, 
Pettenkofer and Voit^ found that 100 parts of fat were equivalent 
to 172-179 parts, average 175 parts, of carbohydrates (starch) 
for this purpose. When considering the formation of flesh in the 
animal bodj^, it was shown that carbohydrates and fat were 
Ijractically of equal value, pound for pound, as aids in Hesh for- 
mation. (70) Neither of these offices can be filled by fats to the 
extent indicated by their fuel value as determined by caloiimetric 
iiivestigations, (60) or as would be inferred from the quantity of 

1 fniiger's Archiv, 51 (1892), p. 317. 
■^ Voit, Physiologie, 2>- loO. 



60 Feeds and Feeding. 

oxygen required for their complete combustion into carbonic acid 
and water. 

85. Effect of water on fat consumption. — Excessive water 
<] finking and the feeding of very wet foods have a deleterious 
effect on the formation of fat. Any conditions which cause an 
excessive consumption of water must of course be avoided with 
fattening animals. Abnormally large quantities of water tax the 
system unnecessarily and retard the formation of flesh and fat. 
A high stable temperature is to be avoided, as it increases the 
amount of water drank and induces greater perspiration. Ani- 
mals worry and lose their appetites under such conditions. Too 
low a temperature, on the other hand, is objectionable, since 
increased oxidation is then necessary to maintain the body 
heat. 

86. Size of the body. — A small animal has a relatively larger 
body surface, and therefore loses more heat through radiation, 
than a large-sized animal. According to Henneberg, ^ more than 
nine-tenths of all the heat produced by the animal goes to supply 
the loss sustained by radiation and to evaporation of water in 
perspiration. Of the heat lost, 26. 7 per cent, is through perspira- 
tion and 65.1 per cent, is by radiation. For the same classes of 
animals the radiation of heat stands in the ratio of relative body 
surface. The body surface of animals of different classes, how- 
ever, does not alone determine the quantity of nutrients needed 
for the preservation of the animal. According to maintenance 
experiments, an ox will need about .6 grams of protein and 7.4 
grams of non- nitrogenous substances for every kilogram of body 
weight, while a full-grown sheep will need 1.2 grams of protein 
and 10.5 grams of non- nitrogenous substances per kilogram of 
body weight. 2 

87. Muscular exertion. — Muscular exertion of any kind in- 
creases the oxidation processes going on in the body of animals; 
vigorous exercise must therefore be avoided in the case of fat- 
tening stock and milch cows. While this applies to external 
movements, it also holds good so far as the internal organs are 



» Neue Beitnige, 1871, p. 227; Annsby, Manual, p. 231. 
2 Wolff, Fiittcrungslohre, 1888, p. 54. 



Animal Nutrition. 61 

concerned, especially the work of digesting feed. A bulky 
fodder requires more energy on the part of the animal to move 
it through the digestive canal, and larger quantities of digestive 
fluids to extract its nutritive elements than does a concentrated 
fodder; hence the importance of supplying hard- worked horses, 
milch cows and fattening animals a concentrated, easily- digested 
ration. 

88. Concerning the fattening process. — The process of fatten- 
ing depends on the amount of nutrients taken up by the sj^stem 
over and above its requirements. It is therefore evident that 
anything which will decrease the oxidation processes going on in 
the body, that is, decrease the waste caused by the wear and tear 
of muscles and internal organs, will prove conducive to fat pro- 
duction. The quantity of oxygen taken up by the blood is 
dependent on the nutritive condition of the body; the more 
material supplied and the more energetic the processes of decom- 
position, the more oxygen is needed. There is, however, a limit 
to the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed by the blood, this 
limit being determined by the amount of blood in the body and 
its content of haemoglobin, the characteristic coloring matter of 
the red blood corpuscles. A small amount of blood and a small 
haemoglobin content of the same are therefore favorable to fatten- 
ing. We see in this a possible explanation of the custom reported 
to be practiced in some parts of Europe of bleeding fattening 
animals. 

Eeference has been made to the possible formation of fat by a 
degenerative process from the muscles of the body through phos- 
phorus poisoning; (78) the phosphorus in this case acts as a 
poison by depriving the blood of its oxygen, and the result is the 
formation of fatty matter from the muscular tissues. 

89. Influence of light on fattening. — The influence of light on 
fattening has been studied by Graffenberger, ^ the experiments 
being made with both young and full-grown rabbits. One set of 
animals was kept in the light, and another in a dark room. The 
investigator found that the content of haemoglobin in the blood 
of the rabbits kept in the dark was decreased, and the amount of 

1 Pfluger's Archiv, 53 (1893), p. 238. 



62 Feeds and Feeding. 

blood in tlic bodies of these animals decreased somewhat on long 
confinement in a dark room. The average qnantity of blood in 
the animals kept in the light was 22.2 grams, and of those kej^t 
in a darkened room, 17.2 grams. In another experiment, the 
bodies of rabbits kept in light and dark rooms contained 100.3 
grams and 90. 6 grams of blood, respectively. According to these 
experiments, darkening the stable will have a stimulating influ- 
ence on the formation of fat in the bodies of animals. Graffen- 
berger also ascertained that the production of fat in animals kept 
in the light and those kept in the dark was as 100 : 126 for the 
first 16 days. After 46 days the ratio was as 100 : 119. With 
full-grown animals the increase was as 100 : 216 after 24 days, 
and as 100 : 138 after 75 days. 

The deprivation of daylight, therefore, caused an increase in 
the formation of fat and an increase in live weight. The increase 
was larger in the case of full-grown animals than with younger 
ones; and further, by prolonging the absence of light the increase 
was relatively smaller than for the shorter time. As the develop- 
ment of the skeleton and liver of the animal is retarded by dark- 
ness, the prolonged absence of light has a deleterious effect upon 
the health of the animal. While Graffenberger corroborates the 
results of Moleschott, ^ Platen, ^ and other early investigators, that 
light causes an increased excretion of carbonic acid and a greater 
consumption of oxygen, he finds that protein consumption is not 
influenced by the absence or presence of daylight. 



1 Wien Med. Wochenschr., 1855. 

2 Pfliiger's Archiv, 11, p. 272. 



CHAPTEE V. 

THE SOUECE OF MUSCULAR ENEEGY; COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 
BEFOEE AND AFTER FATTENING. 

I. The Source of Muscular Energn and the Production of Force. 

90. Food the basis of life. — The ultimate object of most of 
the food supplied to the auimal is the production of work. All 
the manifestations of life, shown in a thousand ways by the animal, 
are in some manner derived from the food. The horse is kept for 
the direct production of labor. The cow, in furnishing milk, 
supplies a substance used for building up the tissues of the body 
or for the production of work. Doubtless the manner in which 
the food is converted into energy will always exceed man's power 
to definitely determine, but many facts in this connection already 
known are interesting and highly instructive. 

We ha^'e learned that the substances which enter the body as 
food can be grouped under three great divisions: protein, carbo- 
hydrates, and ether extract. (7-9) We have fui'ther learned 
that when the protein of the food has entered the body proper 
and been broken down, the amount of this loss to the body can 
be measured by nitrogen found in the urea. (57) The carbo- 
hydrates and ether extract, when absorbed from the alimentary 
tract to nurture the body, may be built up into body tat or de- 
composed into carbonic acid and water, heat and energy being 
given off in this process. The water resulting from the decom- 
position cannot be used as a measure of the broken-down carbo- 
hydrates and fat, for the reason that it is mingled with water 
from other sources when excreted. Scientists are, nevertheless, 
able to determine the quantity of these substances which has been 
broken down, by measuring the carbonic acid exhaled in the 
breath of the animal. 



64 



Feeds and Feeding. 



91. Liebig's theory. — It was lield by Liebig that tlie exercise 
of force is due to the breaking-down of lean-meat tissue in the 
animal body, as is shown by the following :i 

''The amount of azotized food (protein) necessary to restore 
the equilibrium between waste and supply is directly propor- 
tional to the amount of tissues metamorphosed. 

"The amount of living matter, which in the body loses tho 
condition of life, is, in equal temperatures, directly proportional 
to the mechanical effects produced in a given time. 

"The amount of tissue metamorphosed in a given time may be 
measured by the quantity of nitrogen in the urine. 

" The sum of the mechanical effects produced in two individuak^ 
in the same temperature is proportional to the amount of nitrogen 
in their urine; whether the mechanical force has been employed 
in voluntary or involuntary motions, whether it has been consumed 
by limbs or by the heart and other viscera." 

92. Lawes and Gilbert's trial. — Lawes and Gilbert held a different 
view, believing that protein did not play the exclusive part in the 
production of energy claimed for it. Putting their doubts to test, 
they conducted the following experiment: ^ Two pigs of similar 
weight and appearance were selected. To one was given all 
it would consume of lentil meal, a feed rich in protein, containing 
about 4 per cent, of nitrogen. The other pig was fed all it would 
consume of barley meal, containing less than 2 per cent, of nitro- 
gen. Each x)ig was confined in a frame, with arrangements for 
collecting the faeces and urine separately. All the usual precau- 
tions for good work were observed, with the following results: 

Feeding pigs protein-rich and protein-poor rations — BothamMed 

Station. 



Periods. 


Food. 


Nitrogen 
in food. 


Urea 
voided. 


Urea- 
nitrogen. 


Days. 
3 


No. 1, lentil meal 


Grams. 

123. 

58.0 
120.6 

51.2 


Grams. 

134. 
' 61.5 
141. 
52.1 


Grams. 
02. 6 


3 


No. 2, barley meal 


28.7 


10 


No. 1, lentil meal 


65.8 


10 


No. 2, barley meal 


24.3 









'Or 
' Jour 



•ganio Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and Pathology, 
ur. Roy. Agl. Soc, 1895; Bui. 22, Oltice of Expt. Sta. 



The Source of Muscular Energy. 



65 



Here were two animals at rest, one getting much nitrogen in its 
feed and the other a limited amount. Vf hile the work performed 
by the pigs was equal, or very nearly so, for both were equally at 
rest, the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urea varied greatly, 
being in proportion to the amount of that element in the feed 
given. 

93. Nitrogen excretion during hard labor. — We next i)resent a 
case in which there was severe physical exertion, that we may 
learn whether the nitrogen excreted bears a direct relation to 
the work performed. In 1865, Professors Fick and Wislicenus 
ascended the Faulhorn, an Ali^ine mountain, i In this laborious 
effort they were careful to note their diet and to i^reserve all the 
urine excreted during the trip, which was afterwards analyzed. 
From before the ascent until after returning, the food consumed 
contained only starch, fat and sugar. The following is a sum- 
mary of the results so far as they relate to the point under con- 
sideration: 

Nitrogen excreted in the urine hy Fick and Wislicenus ivMle ascending 

Mf. Faulhorn. 



Urea. 



Nitrogen , 
in ureii. 



Total 
nitrogen. 



Nitrogen, 
exci'eted 
per hour 

(average). 



Fick. 
Night before ascent 

During ascent 

After ascent 

Night after ascent ... 



Wislicenus. 
Night before ascent , 

During ascent 

After ascent 

Night after ascent. . . , 



Grams. 

12.4820 
7.0330 
5.1718 



11.7614 
6.6973 
5.1020 



Grams. 

5.8249 
3.2681 
2.4151 



5.4887 
3.1254 
2.3809 



Grams. 

6.9153 
3.3130 
2.4293 

4.8167 



6.6841 
3.1336 
2.4165 
5.3462 



Grams. 

0.63 
.41 
.40 
.45 



.61 
.39 
.40 
.51 



''The record of the actual quantities is sufficient to show that 
much less nitrogen was excreted by both experimenters during 
and after than before the ascent. But the calculated amounts of 



* Loc. cit. 
5 



66 



Feeds and Feeding. 



nitrogen excreted per hour during each of the periods, as given 
in the last column of the table, bring the main results more clearly 
to view. It is seen that, on the average, only about two-thirds 
as much nitrogen was excreted per hour during and after the 
ascent as prior to it, when there would be more or less residue in 
the system from the last albuminous meal. ' ' 

Had the nitrogenous tissues of the body been broken down 
directly in proportion to the labor i^erformed, there would have 
been a large increase of nitrogen in the urea of these persons dur- 
ing and just after their fatiguing work, but such is not the case. 

In 18G6, Fraukland, ^ studying the sources of muscular i)Ower, 
made numerous calorimetrical deterudnations of the energy 
evolved by the combustion of muscle, urea and various foods, or 
constituents of food, and concluded that the transformation of 
muscular tissue alone cannot account for more than a small frac- 
tion of the muscular power developed by animals. 

94. The excretion of carbonic acid. — Let us now study the 
quantities of carbonic acid given off by animals under different 
conditions of labor and rest. 

The great increase in the carbonic acid exhaled during work, 
and its decrease with the cessation of work, are clearly brought 
out in trials by Smith, 2 as shown in the following table: 

Amount of carbonic acid exhaled by the horse under varying condi- 
tions — Smith. 



Carbonic acid exlaaled per hour. 



Pony ( work 
trottina;). 



Horse (work 
galloping). 



Horse (work 
galloping). 



Rest 

Work 

After work 



Cubic feet. 

0.7G48 

2.3954 

.4G31 



Cubic feet. 



20. 6265 
1.3133 



Cubic feet. 



12.48.53 
1.1693 



» Phil. Mag. 1866, 4th Ser., Vol. XXXII, p. 182; loc. cit. 
2 Jour. Physiology, 1890, No. 1; loc. cit. 



Tlie Source of Muscular Energy. 67 

The following table by the same investigator shows the great 
increase in the carbonic acid gas exhaled with increasing labor: 

Carbonic acid exhaled by the horse at rest and at work — Smith. 



Rest 

Walking.. 
Trotting... 
Cantering, 
Galloping 



Carbonic acid exhaled 
per hour. 



Series A. Series B 



Cubic feet. 

1.02S2 
1.0!)72 

4.9159 
1-4.9725 



Cubic feet. 

1.2346 
1.0586 
4.8309 
5.0080 



These tables show the variation in the anionnt of carbonic acid 
given off by the Inngs of animals during labor, and the rapid 
increase as the labor increases. ]!^o such findings are on record 
with regard to the excretion of nitrogen in the urea. The con- 
clusion is irresistible that the carbohydrates and the fat of the 
food and of the body, and not protein, are the main sources of 
body energy. 

95. Body heat does not measure the energy of food. — On this 
subject Wolff writes: 1 ''The great increase in the combustion 
of fat during work has led to the assumption that this constitutes 
the chief source of muscular energy, that the work done is the 
result of the heat produced, and that in the animal body a con- 
version of heat into force takes place, just as the steam-engine 
produces work through the heat of the burning fuel by the inter- 
vention of steam, or as the hot-air engine executes work by means 
of the heated air. The non-nitrogenous food stuffs are directly 
concerned in this heat production, and it has been calculated that 
20 per cent, of the heat produced by their combustion is con- 
verted into work, which is a far larger proportion than that yet 
attained by the most efi&cient steam-engines, which only convert 
about 10 per cent, of the heat they receive into work. It is open 
to question, however, whether the heat produced in the body can 
be directly converted into mechanical work as in the case of the 



1 Farm Foods, English edition, pp. 82, 83, Cousins. 



68 



Feeds and Feeding. 



air engine, or can even be considered its direct source, since the 
necessary conditions of alternate lieating and cooling of the whole 
or a part do not hold good in the animal body, and make a com- 
parison between the two impossible The increased 

production of heat during work and the increased respiration are 
but secondary effects, the result of work, and can by no means 
be regarded as its primary or direct cause. The increased heat 
produced in work is dissipated in evaporation from the body and 
by greater heat radiation, and is eventually reduced again to the 
normal." 

96. Food requirements for work vary. — Wolff further writes:^ 
''The food required to produce work varies with the form of 
muscular activity or the work done. Katzenstein, for instance, 
found that work done by men turning a wheel with the arms 
produced a greater expenditure of material in the body than the 
same work done with the legs. The volume of oxygen used per 
kilogram- meter of work done with hand-labor amounted to 1.96 
cubic centimeters, but when the work was done with the legs, 
only from 1.19 to 1.51 cubic centimeters." 

Further, the degree of practice in a particular kind of work 
influences the expenditure of material in the body, as Gruber 
found by experiments on himself. The carbonic acid produced 
every twenty minutes amounted to the following: 





Kest. 


Walking. 


Climbing. 




Out of 
practice. 


In 
practice. 


Carbonic acid, grams 


12.83 


22.42 


38.83 
7376 


31.00 


Work kilo^raiu-nieter 


7639 











Zuntz and Lehmann obtained similar results in their experi- 
ments on the horse. "It can be deduced from the total experi- 
mental results that no constant relationship can be set up between 
the production of work and consumption of food; the entire 
organization of an animal, its individual and variable peculiarities 
and condition, etc., create great differences in the economical 



1 Farm Foods, pp. 84, 85. 



The Source of Muscular Energy. 69 

employment of its power in doing tlie same piece of work; with 
the same individual the quality and intensity of the work produces 
great differences, and further researches are required to reduce 
the variations in question by regular use to an individual and 
perhaps a typical average value." 

97o The sources of muscular energy. — Wolff further says:^ 
^'The e-ssential sources of muscular power are seen in the decom- 
position processes in the body, i. e., in the destruction which 
portions of the body or the food resorbed from the digestive tract 
undergo by the passage of the plasma through the tissues. To 
this end, as we have already seen in the case of fat- production, 
both nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances contribute. As 
these materials are resolved by the influence of oxygen into 
simple groups of atoms, the energy of chemical force which 
previously linked the atoms together in more complicated group- 
ings is set at liberty, and can be employed as kinetic energy for 
the external work of the body. In a condition of rest, this energy 
serves for the internal work of the organs or is converted into 
electric current, etc. The animal body often stores up a certain 
amount of energy; as soon as this store has been rapidly exhausted 
by work, a period of rest is nece&sary to enable fresh material to 
flow through the tissue-cells and generate fresh energy for the 
production of more active work. The force-production and all 
phenomena resulting from the combustion of organic matter in 
the animal body must obey the law of the conservation of energy." 

98. Conclusion. — Taking the experiments here presented and 
many others by the investigators for guidance, we may conclude 
that in the exercise of force there is greatly increased expenditure 
of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food (carbohydrates 
and ether extract), and but little of the nitrogenous. (440) At 
the same time the importance of nitrogenous food must not be 
under- estimated, for, as Wolff tells us: ^'No one expects much 
work from men or animals fed on a diet poor in nitrogen, such as 
potatoes and rice. Fatness of body is never considered a sign of 
muscular strength." 



1 Farm Foods, pp. 85, 86. 



70 Feeds and Feeding, 

''A liiglily liberal diet is absolutely liecessary to preserve the 
flesli and fat in the body, and at the same time to keep it in a 
powerful condition. An addition of fat, which is the most intense 
respiration material, is often a desirable addition and nearly as 
important as albumen; and it is a suggestive fact that the working 
classes have a decided taste for fatty dishes, and that oats — a 
food proportionately rich in fat — are recognized as an excellent 
food for horses."' 

In the above we have the strongest statements possible in favor 
of the importance of protein for the production of work. When 
we consider the large proportion of carbohydrates and ether ex- 
tract in the ration, and remember that fat contains more than twice 
the heat units of protein, we must concede that these food-groups 
furnish most of the energy developed in the animal body. (438- 
441) 

II. Composition of Steers, Sheep and Pigs, and their Increase during 

Fattening. 

99. Investigations of Lawes and Gilbert. — The only extended 
investigations concerning the composition of the bodies of farm 
animals and of the increase during fattening are those conducted 
by Lawes and Gilbert of the Eothamsted (England) Station. 
These investigations, which were begun in 1848, were first pub- 
lished in 1859. 2 The second part, relating to the composition of 
the ash of the entire animal and certain separate parts, was pub- 
lished in 1863. 3 This work will stand for all time a witness to 
the high standard of painstaking research established by these 
pioneer English experimenters in agricultural science. Only a 
brief summary of their work can here be given, taken mainly froui 
their recent contribution on The Feeding of Animals. ^ 

To determine the ultimate composition of steers, sheep and pigs, 
the entire bodies of ten animals of each group were subjected to 
analysis. The findings are condensed in the table here given: 



1 Farm Foods, p. 91. 

2 Phil. Tnins., Part II, 1859; Jour. Roy. As?!. Soc, 1860. 

3 Phil. Trans., Part III, 1883; Hothamsted Memoirs, Vols. II, III, IV. 

4 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1895. See also Bui. 22, Office of Exi^erlment 
Stations. 



Composition of Animal Body. 



Fercentage composition of the entire bodies, the carcasses and the offal 
of ten animals of different descriptions, or in different conditions 
of maturity — Lawes and Gilbert. 

Contents 
of stom- 
ach and 
Intestin's 
in moist 
state. 

Division I. Per cent, in thie entii-e animal (fasted live weight). 



Description of animal. 



Mineral 
matter 
(ash). 


Nitroge- 
nous sub- 
stance. 


Fat. 


Total dry 
sub- 
stance. 


Water. 



Fat calf 

Half-fat ox. 
Fat ox 



Fat lamb 

Store sheep 

Half-fat old sheep . 

Fat sheep 

Extra-fat sheep .... 



Store pig. 
Fat pig.... 



Means of all 



3.80 
4.66 
3.92 

2.94 
3.16 
3.17 
2.81 
2.90 

2.67 
1.65 



3.17 



15.2 
16.6 
14.5 

12.3 
14.8 
14.0 
12.2 
10.9 

13.7 
10.9 



13.5 



14.8 
19.1 
30.1 

28.5 
18.7 
23.5 
35.6 
45.8 

23.3 

42.2 



28.2 



33.8 
40.3 

48. 5 

43.7 
36.7 
40.7 
50.6 
59.6 

39.7 
54.7 



44.9 



63.0 
51.5 
45.5 

47.8 
57.3 
50.2 
43.4 



55.1 
41.3 



49.0 



3.17 
8.19 
5.98 

8.54 
6.00 
9.05 
6.02 
5.18 

5.22 
3.97 



Division II. Per cent, in carcass. 



Fat calf 

Half-fat ox. 
Fat ox 



Fat lamb 

Store sheep 

Half-fat old sheep. 

Fat sheep 

Extra-fat sheep 



Store pig , 
Fat pig 



Means of all 



4.48 


16.6 


16.6 


37.7 


62.3 


5.56 


17.8 


22.6 


46.0 


54.0 


4.56 


15.0 


34.8 


54.4 


45.6 


3.63 


10.9 


36.9 


51.4 


48,6 


4.36 


14.5 


23.8 


42.7 


57.3 


4.13 


14.9 


31.3 


50.3 


49.7 


3.4.5 


11.5 


45.4 


60.3 


39.7 


2.77 


9.1 


55.1 


67.0 


33.0 


2.57 


14.0 


28.1 


44.7 


55.3 


1.40 


10.5 


49.5 


61.4 


38.6 


3.69 


13.5 


34.4 


51.6 


48.4 



Division III. Per cent, in oftal (excluding contents of stomach and intestines). 



Fat calf 

Half-fat ox. 
Fat ox 



Fat lamb 

Store sheep 

Half-fat old sheep , 

Fat sheep 

Extra-fat sheep .... 



Store pig. 
Fat pig.... 



Means of all 



3.41 


17.1 


14.6 


35.1 


64.9 


4.05 


20.6 


15.7 


40.4 


59.6 


3.40 


17.5 


26.3 


47.2 


52.8 


2.45 


18.9 


20.1 


41.5 


58.5 


2.19 


18.0 


16.1 


36.3 


63.7 


2.72 


17.7 


18.5 


38.9 


61.1 


2.32 


16.1 


26.4 


44.8 


55.2 


3.64 


16.8 


34.5 


54.9 


45.1 


3.07 


14.0 


15.0 


32.1 


67.9 


2.97 


14.8 


22.8 


40.6 


59.4 


3.02 


17.2 


21.0 


41.2 


58.8 



72 Feeds and Feeding. 

The first division of the table relates to the composition of the 
entire body (ftisted live weight) of the animal. Eeferring to the 
second column, headed '■ ' mineral matter, ' ' we learn that in every 
100 pounds of the body of the fat calf there are 3.8 pounds of ash 
or mineral matter; that is, if the body of the calf were consumed 
by fire, there would remain that amount of ash for each 100 
pounds of body weight. With the half-fat ox the ash amounts to 
4.66 pounds, while for the fat ox it falls to 3.92 pounds for each 
100 pounds live weight. 

In like manner we learn that in 100 pounds of live lean pig 
(fasted weight) there are 2.67 pounds of ash or mineral matter, 
while in the fat pig there are only 1.65 pounds. The pig haa 
less mineral matter in its body than other farm animals. 

100. Nitrogenous substance. — In the muscles, tendons, liga- 
ments, hide, hair, horns, blood, nerves and organic matter of the 
bones is found the nitrogenous substance of the body. Most of 
the nitrogenous substance is in the red meat or lean portion of the 
flesh. For cacli 100 pounds of body weight the fat calf has 15.2 
pounds of nitrogenous substance. This is slightly increased for the 
half-fat ox, and reduced for the fat ox. In the lean sheep and pig 
there is less nitrogenoiLS substance than in the fat calf, while for 
the extra-fat sheep and fat pig the lean meat constitutes only 10.9 
pounds in each 100 pounds of body. 

101. Fat of the body. — In the fat calf there are 14.8 jiounds of 
fat for 100 pounds of body weight. This is increased to 19.1 for 
the half- fat ox and 30.1 pounds for the ox when fat. Lean sheep 
show 18.7 i)<)unds of fat, while in extra fat sheep it runs up to 
45.8 per 100 ijounds Aveight. The lean pig shows 23.3 per cent, 
and the fat pig 42.2 per cent, of fat. 

It is interesting to observe that the body of the fat calf contains 
almost as much fat, and tliat of the fat ox more than two pounds 
of fat, for each pound of nitrogenous or lean-meat substance. Even 
in lean sheep there is more fat than lean meat, and with the 
extra-fat sheej) there is four times as much fat as dry lean meat. 
The same is true of the fat pig. 

102. Water and dry substance In the body. — In the next two 
columns of the table is a statement of the total dry substance and 






Composition of Animal Body. 73 

the water in the animal's body. It is shown that 63 out of everj 
100 pounds live weight of the fat calf's body is water. With the 
half- fat ox, this is materially reduced, and with the fat ox it 
amounts to 45.5 per cent. Thus we learn that considerably more 
than half the body weight of the calf, and nearly half that of the 
fatted ox is water. In extra-fat sheep the water content falls to 
35.2 pounds, the lowest of all farm animals, while for the fat pig 
it is 41.3 pounds for each 100 pounds. On the average, for all 
animals studied, 49 pounds in every 100 of body weight is water. 
The supreme importance of this neutral fluid to the animal sys- 
tem is strikingly brought out by these figures. 

103. Composition of the increase while fattening. — Lawes and 
Gilbert's researches furnish data showing that the process of 
fattening is really what the term implies — the hiying-on of 
fat. During fattening the percentage of total dry matter in 
the body is considerably increased, and the fatty matter accu- 
mulated is much greater than the nitrogenous substance. The 
increase during fattening of moderately fattened oxen will con- 
tain scarcely more than 1.5 per cent, of mineral matter, 8 per 
cent, of nitrogenous substance, and 65 per cent, of fat, the total 
dry substance put on during fattening ranging from 70 to 75 per 
cent. The remainder of the increase is water. If steers grow 
as well as fatten, there may be more mineral matter and nitrog- 
enous substance, less fat and more water in the added growth, 
than just reported. In such case about two-thirds of the increase 
is dry substance and one-third water, while if the steer is mature, 
the added weight while fattening consists of as much as three- 
fourths dry substance and one-fourth water. 

Studies of sheep lead to the conclusion that the increase during 
fattening will contain not less than 2 per cent, of mineral matter 
and frequently more — a decided increase over the ox, due largely 
to the growth of wool during fattening. Of the added weight of 
sheep during fattening, from 70 to 75 per cent, may be fiit. 

While fattening, the pig adds scarcely any mineral matter to the 
body, and rarely more than 7.5 per cent, of nitrogenous substance, 
the fat forming as much as 70 per cent, of the increase. Of the 
gain in weight made by the pig during fattening, about 75 per 
cent, is dry matter and 25 per cent, water. The increase of less 



74 



Feeds and Feeding. 



liighly fattened pigs contains more nitrogenous substance, more 
water and less fat. 

104. Comparative fattening qualities of different farm animals. — 

Clatbering their results into a single table for the purpose of study- 
ing the comparative fattening qualities of farm animals, Lawes 
and Gilbert present the following table, giving the proportion of 
the various organs and jsarts of the body, the feed consumed 
weekly, gains, etc. : 

Comparative faitenbui qualities of farm animals — Laioes and Gilbert. 



Relation of parts in 100 pounds 


ive weig 


ht. 






Oxen. 


Sheep. 


Pigs. 


Average of 


IG 

Lbs. 

11.5 

2.8 


249 

Lbs. 

7.4 
3.5 


59 


Stomachs and contents 


Lbs. 
1.3 


Intestines and contents 


6.2 






Internal loose fat 


14.3 

4.6 

7.0 
13.0 


10.9 

7.0 

7.3 
15.0 


7.5 
1.6 


Heart, aorta, lungs, windpipe, liver, gall-blad- 
der and contents, pancreas, spleen and blood.. 
Other ofFal parts 


6.6 
1.1 






Total offal parts 


38.9 

59.3 

1.8 


40.2 

59.7 

0.1 


16.8 


Carcass 


82 6 


Loss by evaporation, etc 


0.6 






Total 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 







Per 100 pounds live weight. 



Dry substance consumed in food per week 
Increase yielded per week 



12.5 
1.13 



16.0 
1.76 



27.0 
6.43 



Per 100 pounds dry substance 


of food. 






Fat in increase 


5.2 

6.2 

36.5 


7.0 

8.0 

31.9 


15.7 


Total d ry slibstance in increase 


17 6 


Total dry substance in excretions 


16 7 









Average fat. 








In lean condi tion 


16.0 
30.0 
60.0 


18.0 
83.0 
65.0 


22 


I n fat condition 


44 


In increase while fattening 


70 









Composition of Animal Body. 75 

The table presents the summaries from the study of 16 oxen, 
249 sheep and 59 pigs. For the ox we learn that the stomach 
and contents constitute 11.5 per cent., for the sheep 7.4 per cent., 
and for the pig but 1.3 per cent, of the live weight. The very- 
small size of the stomach of the pig is here made evident. It is 
shown that 59.3 per cent, of the live weight of the fattsd ox is 
returned as dressol carcass. Sheep dress about the same as steers, 
while the pig returns 82.6 per cent, dressed weight, greatly 
exceeding the ox and sheep in the proportion of valuable parts. 

In the second division of the table we learn that for each 100 
pounds of live weight the steer consumes 12.5 pounds of dry 
matter, the sheep somewhat more, and the i)ig 27.27 pounds 
of dry matter each week. The fattening steer increases 1.13 
per cent, of his live weight weekly, the sheep 1.76 per cent., 
while the pig makes surprising gains, increasing 6.43 per cent, of 
his live weight in a week. 

In the next division of the table we are told of the fat and dry 
substance in the increase, and also of the dry substance in the 
excretions. Here the sheep leads the steer, and the pig more 
than doubles the increase of either. 

105. Feeds and fattening. — The following is adapted from 
Wariugton;! Lawes and Gilbert reckon that on an average for 
the whole fattening period, an ox will produce 100 pounds of live 
weight from the consumption of 250 pounds of oil cake, 600 
pounds of clover hay and 3,500 pounds of Swedes (turnips). 
Sheep will produce the same increase by the consumiDtion of 250 
pounds of oil cake, 300 pounds of clover hay and 4,000 pounds 
of Swedes. Pigs will require about 500 pounds of barley meal 
to yield a similar result. Taking these data, the rate of food 
consumption and the increase yielded will be as follows: 

1 Chemistry of the Farm. 



76 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Mesults with fattening animals per 100 pounds live weight, per week — 

Warington. 



Results produced. 



Oxen., 

Sheep, 
Pigs... 



Received by the 


animal. 


Total 


Digestible 


dry 


organic 


food. 


matter. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


12.5 


8.9 


16.0 


12.3 


27.0 


22.0 



Food con- 
sumed for 
heat and 
work.* 



Lbs. 

6.86 

9.06 

12.58 



Dry ma- 
nuref pro- 
duced. 



Lbs. 

4.56 
5.10 
4.51 



Increase ia 
live weight. 



Lbs. 

1.13 
1.76 
6.43 



Results obtained in relation to food consumed. 





Increase in live 
weight. 


On 100 pounds of dry food. 




Per 100 

lbs. dry 

food. 


Per 100 
lbs. di- 
gested or- 
ganic 
matter. 


^ Consumed. 

for heat and 

work.* 


Dry manure 
produced.! 


Dry in- 
crease 
yielded. 


Oxen 


Lbs. 

9.0 
11.0 

23.8 


Lbs. 

12.7 
14.3 

29.2 


Lbs. 

54.9 
56.6 
46.6 


Lbs. 

36.5 
31.9 
16.7 


Lbs. 
6.2 


Sheep 


8.0 


Pigs 


17.6 







* In calculating the amount of food consumed for the production of 
heat and work, it has been assumed that the fat in the increase has been 
derived entirely from the fat and carbohydrates supplied by the food. 

t The manure is exclusive of litter. 

Warington tells us in the first table that pigs are able to con- 
sume far more food in proportion to their live weight than 
either sheep or oxen. This is due to the concentrated and digesti- 
ble character of the food commonly supplied the fattening pig, 
and to the great capacity of this animal for assimilation. The 
proportion of stomach is greater in the ox or sheep than in the 
pig, being for 100 pounds live weight, 3.2 for the ox, 2.5 for the 
sheep, and .7 for the pig. On the other hand, the proportion of 
the intestines is greater with the pig. (32) Euminants are thus 
best fitted for dealing with feeds requiring prolonged digestion, 
while the pig excels in the capacity for assimilation. 



Composition of Animal Body. 



77 



As a natural result of tlie larger consumption of food, the pig 
increases in weight more rapidly than the sheep or ox. Not only 
is the rate of increase more rapid, but the increase yielded by the 
pig is also far greater in proportion to the food consumed, as 
plainly appears from the lower division of the table. The pig, 
with its very large consumption of food, has, in fact, to spend a 
smaller proportion of it on heat and work, and has a larger sur- 
plus to store as increase. Of 100 pounds digested organic 
matter, the fattening ox spends about 77 for heat and work, the 
sheep 74, and the pig 57. The upper division of the table shows, 
however, that in a given time a pig converts a much larger 
amount of food into heat and work than either the sheep or ox. 
This greater consumption probably represents the internal work 
performed in laying-on increase. The pig, with its rapid feeding 
and high rate of increase, is undoubtedly the most economical meat- 
making machine at the farmer's disposal. The returns of sheep 
lie between those given by oxen and pigs, being, however, much 
nearer the former than the latter. The German experiments 
place the sheep below the ox as an economic producer of increase, 
instead of above it, as in the Eothamsted statistics just quoted. 
The difference is probably due to the different breeds of animals 
under experiment. 

106. Nitrogen and ash in carcasses of farm animals. — The table 
shows the quantity of nitrogen, and principal ash constituents, in 
the fasted live weight of animals analyzed at Eothamsted. 

Ash constituents and nitrogen in 1,000 pounds of various animals, 
based on live fasted loeight, includi.ig contents of stomach and 
intestines — Lawes and Gilbert. 



Fat calf. 

Half-fat ox 

Fat ox 

Fat lamb... 
Store sheep 
Fat sheep... 
Store pig... 
Fat pig 



Nitrogen, 



Lbs. 

24.64 
27.45 
23.26 
19.71 
23.77 
19.76 
22.08 
17.65 



Phosphoric 
acid. 



Lbs. 

15.35 
18.39 
15.51 
11.26 
11.88 
10.40 
10.66 
6.54 



Potash. 


Lime. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


2.06 


16.46 


2.05 


21.11 


1.76 


17.92 


1.66 


12.81 


1.74 


13.21 


1.48 


11.84 


1.96 


10.79 


1.38 


6.36 



Magnesia. 



Lbs. 

0.79 
0.85 
0.61 
0.52 
0.56 
0.48 
0.53 
0.32 



CHAPTER VI. 

INFLUENCE OF FEED ON THE ANIIJAL BODY. 

I. Influence of Feed on the Growing Body of the Pig. 

107. Sanborn's findings. — In 1884, Sanborn, of the Missouri 
Agricultural College, ^ observed more lean and less fat in the 
bodies of pigs fed ship-stuff" (middlings) than in those of pigs fed 
corn meal. He wrote: ^'Does a food rich in carbohydrates and 
fat tend to produce an increased proportion of fat to flesh! . . . 
I have heretofore observed that a pig fed on ship-stuff (mid- 
dlings), versus corn, gave an apparently better muscular develop- 
ment from ship-stuff. . , . Experience convinces me that 
the exclusive use of corn meal for a feeding ration is detrimental 
to a vigorous and healthy muscular development, producing a 
pig easily subject to disease, distasteful to oui* consumers, and 
more costly than is necessary." In later bulletins ^ this investi- 
gator reports studies in which pigs were fed dried blood and corn 
meal in opposition to corn meal only. The weights of various 
internal organs were ascertained, and the fat and lean of the car- 
casses separated by the knife, and weighed. The data thus 
obtained confirmed the original statement. Marked differences 
in the relative size of some of the internal organs were also 
reported. 

108. Studies at other Stations. — Recognizing the great impor- 
tance of this line of study from the scientific standpoint, and its 
significance to the breeder of swine, to the farmer interested in 
pig feeding, and to the consumer of i)ork i)i'oducts as well, the 
writer conducted several trials in the same line as Sanborn's, at 
the Wisconsin Station. ^ In these trials dried blood, (338) mid- 

1 Bui. 10. 

2 Buls. 14, 19, Mo. Agrl. Col. 

3 Repts. 1886, '87, '88, '89. 



Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 79 

dlings, peas and skim milk, articles rich in protein, were fed in 
opposition to corn meal, wliich was used because it is the com- 
mon pig feed of the country and is the richest in carbohydrates 
of its class. 

The same subject was investigated at the Kansas Station ^ by 
Shelton, who fed pigs a mixture of shorts and bran in opposition 
to corn meal, potatoes and tallow. 

At the Alabama Station, 2 Duggar fed cowpeas, which are rich 
in protein, in opposition to corn meal. (863) 

In France, Fortier, ^ likewise recognizing the importance of 
this work, duplicated in one instance a trial by the writer, feed- 
ing dried blood, skim milk and middlings in opj)osition to corn 
meal only, to ascertain if parallel results could be obtained in 
his country. Thus we have the results of feeding pigs rations 
rich in protein and poor in protein at five widely- separated points. 

The results of these several trials are condensed in the following 
comprehensive tables: 

1 Bui. 9. 

2 Bui. 82. 

3 Ext. Trav. Soc. Cent. d'Agr., Dept. Seine-Iuf., 1889, 1890. 



80 



Feeds and Feeding. 



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Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 



81 



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82 Feeds and Feeding. 

109. What the tables show. — The first table shows that in every 
instance the protein-rich ration produced heavier gains than the 
others. In the several columns are given the weights of various 
parts and organs of the body. Since pigs fed on the several 
rations reached different weights at the time of slaughter, the 
weights are reduced to a common standard for comparison. This 
is done in the second table, where the weights of the different 
parts are stated for each 100 pounds of dressed carcass. 

It is seen in the second table that the pigs fed the protein- rich 
rations usually show a larger shrinkage than those getting corn 
meal. This is accounted for in part by the larger amount of 
blood, heavier livers and other organs of the protein-fed pigs. 

In nearly every instance the pigs receiving the protein-rich 
rations yielded more blood than those fed corn. In the Kansas 
trial the pigs getting shorts and bran had 51.2 ounces of blood to 
100 pounds of carcass, while the corn-fed pigs had only 36.8 
ounces. In Fortier's trials in France, the blood of the corn-meal - 
fed pigs was less than half that of the pigs receiving the protein- 
rich ration, the ratio standing 55.1 to 26.1. The only exception 
was in the Wisconsin trial, where the pigs were made very fat 
by feeding milk. 

In every instance the pigs fed the protein-rich rations had 
heavier livers than the others, the difference often being very 
marked. For example, in the Missouri trial the pigs fed mid- 
dlings had livers weighing 48.4 ounces to 100 pounds of carcass, 
while those of the lot fed corn weighed only 31.9. 

Generally, the kidneys of the protein-fed pigs are heaviest, 
though in Fortier's trials the reverse occurs. 

The tenderloin muscles lying along the back of the pig are 
easily dissected from the remainder of the carcass, and in one 
trial in Wisconsin and in the Kansas trial these muscles were 
separated and weighed. In both cases the muscles of the pigs 
getting the protein-rich rations were heavier in proportion to the 
weight of the body than those of the pigs fed corn. This is proof 
of more lean meat in the carcasses of pigs fed the most protein. 

The pigs getting corn meal gave more leaf lard than the others, 
excepting in the French trial, where the results were practically 
equal. 



Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 



83 



no. Strength of thigh-bones. — In the Wisconsin and Kansas 
trials the strength of the thigh-bones of the pigs in the different 
lots was determined in the following manner: The two rounded 
iron-supporting edges of the testing machine were set four inches 
apart, and on these the thigh-bones were placed, one at a time, 
always in the same position. The rounded edge of the breaking 
bar rested on the bone midway between the two supports. The 
pressure downward upon the bone, which was gradually increased, 
was measured on the tilting-beam of the machine, and the weight 
which the bone supported at the time it broke was recorded. In 
every instance the pigs fed the protein-rich ration possessed the 
strongest bonos, the difference often being very marked. For 
example, in one Wisconsin trial the bones of the corn-fed pigs 
broke at 380 pounds on the average, and those of the pigs fed 
milk, blood and middlings at 503 pounds. These weights are for 
each 100 pounds of dressed carcass, and show in favor of the 
mixed ration by 32 per cent. 

III. What analysis revealed. — In one of the Wisconsin trials 
we went further into details, making partial analyses of some of 
the body organs. In this trial there were four pigs in each lot. 
To the first lot was fed a ration consisting of one-third dried 
blood and two-thirds corn meal, by weight. The second lot 
received one-half pea meal and one-half corn meal, while the 
third was fed corn meal only. All lots received hard-wood ashes, 
salt and water additional. The weights and gains of the pigs 
are shown in the following table: 



Weights and gains of pigs variously fed — W 


'sconsin Station. 


Feed. 


Average 
weight at 
begin- 
ning. 

Lbs. 
90 

98 
99 


Average 
gain dur- 
ing trial. 


Average 

feed per 

100 lbs. 

gain. 


Lot I, \ dried blood, ^ corn meal 


Lbs. 
202 
180 
155 


Lbs. 
409 


Lot II, i 2:>ea nieal, \ corn meal 


449 


Lot III, corn meal only 


481 







It is shown by the table that the lot fed dried blood and corn 
meal made the best gains with the least food, that receiving pea 



84 



Feeds and Feeding. 



meal coming second, while corn meal gave the poorest returns 
with the most feed consumed for a given gain. The dry matter 
of the blood and dry matter and fat in the kidneys were deter- 
mined with the results presented in the following table: 

Results of partial analyses of blood and Icidneys of pigs fed on dried 
blood, pea meal and corn meal — Wisconsin Station. 



Results for 4 pigs. 



Fed 
blood 
and 
corn. 



Fed 
peas 
and 



Fed 
corn 
only. 



Average dressed weight, pounds. 



248 



228 



212 



Blood i)er 100 lbs. dressed weight, grams 

Percent, dry matter in blood 

Dry nisitfcer in blood per 100 lbs. dressed weight, grams 



1332 

24.24 

323 



12(53 

i4.58 

310 



1237 

24.09 

298 



Kidneys, grams per 100 lbs. dressed weight 

Following for 2 pigs each lot only: 

Percent, diy matter in kidneys , 

Per cent, fat in kidneys 

Dry matter in kidneys to 100 lbs. dressed wt. , grams. 
Dry matter in kidneys less fat per 100 lbs. dressed 
weight, grams 



Ill 

24.41 
4.71 
23.4 

18.8 



96 

.80 
.49 
.4 



20.1 



79 

26.26 
6.41 
20.7 

15.6 



The table shows the dry matter in the blood to be quite uniform 
for the three lots, the corn-fed lot containing the lowest percent- 
age. The total dry matter of the kidneys is highest with the 
corn-fed pigs, the difference being due to the larger amount 
of fat in the kidneys. The highest percentage of dry matter in 
the kidneys to dressed carcass is for the pigs fed peas and corn, 
with those fed blood and corn coming second. 

112. Modifications of carcass. — That the bodies of the pigs 
were affected by the feed given in these trials is made plain by 
the colored engravings presented by Fortier of France and the 
writer, ^ and by the half-tone reproductions from photographs by 
Shelton^ and the writer. ^ These views show what Sanborn origi- 
nally announced, viz. , that there is more lean meat in proportion 
to fat in the carcasses of protein-fed pigs than in the carcasses of 
those getting corn meal. 



1 Kept. Wis. Sta., 1886. 

2 Bui. 9, Kan. Bta. 
"Kept. Wis. Sta., 1888. 



Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 



85 



Sanborn's analyses and statements were further substantiated 
by the writer in the following manner: From one side of the car- 
cass the sixth rib and the flesh lying over it were cut out. The 
rib and the skin were removed and the remaining flesh of the sec- 
tion analyzed. As before stated, the tenderloin muscle of the 
back, lying in the angle made by the spinous processes and the 
ribs, is quite free from connection with adjacent tissue. That por- 
tion of this muscle lying over the seventh and eighth ribs was 
selected for analysis, with the average results presented in the 
following table: 

Analyses of sections of the carcasses of pigs fed on dried blood, pea 
meal and corn meal — Wisconsin Station. 





Sixth-rib cut. 


Tenderloin muscle. 


Four pigs in 
each lot. 


Water. 


Fat. 


Dry lean 
meat. 


Water. 


Fat. 


Dry lean 
meat. 


Blood-fed 

Peas-fed 

Corn-fed 


Per cent. 

27.16 
28.41 
20.16 


Per cent. 

64.68 
62.94 
73.56 


Per cent. 

8.16 
8.65 
6.28 


Per cent. 

67.96 
69.49 
67.45 


Per cent. 

8.22 
6.17 
9.41 


Per cent. 

23.32 
24.34 
23.14 



For j)resent purposes we may assume that the flesh lying over 
the sixth rib is representative of the whole carcass. This being 
true, the carcasses of the protein-fed pigs contained eight parts 
more water and ten parts less fat to the hundred pounds than the 
carcasses of the pigs fed corn. For dry lean meat the results are 
a little more than six j)er cent, for the corn-fed pigs and above 
eight per cent, for the other lots. There was, then, about one- 
third more lean meat in the carcasses of the protein-fed pigs than 
in the carcasses of those getting corn. The analysis reveals more 
fat and somewhat less lean meat percentagely in the tenderloin 
muscles of the corn-fed pigs. 

113. Misconception concerning the experiments. — There has 
been misconception concerning the purpose and interpretation of 
these exiDeriments. ^ A few writers have inferred that claims 
were advanced by some of the investigators that lean meat can 



1 Harris on the Pig, 2d Ed.; Agr, Science, vol. 2; Kept. Kan. Bd. 
Agr., Apr. 1889. 



8Q Feeds and Feeding. 

be produced in the body of the pig at the will of the feeder. 
Others interpret the investigations as an attack upon Indian corn 
for swine feeding, while still others declare the experiments- 
inaccurate, or that the figures show nothing unusual. These 
writers refer to the exijeriments by Lawes and Gilbert in which 
the carcasses of pigs fed bran, beans and lentils showed no dif- 
ference in the proportion of muscle to fat over those receiv- 
ing carbonaceous foods. They overlook the vital point in the 
problem, viz., that these later experiments were with growing 
pigs, while the early ones were with animals well advanced 
toward maturity. In the Lawes and Gilbert trials the protein 
feeds used were not altogether suitable for pigs. How much their 
results were modified by this fact it is impossible to state. 

For a discussion of the practical bearing of these experiments, 
see articles 936-940. 

II. Strengthening the Bones of Pigs Kejpt Exclusively on Corn. 

114. Hard-wood ashes and bone meal for pigs fed corn. — When 
feeding corn to pigs as the exclusive ration, the writer observed a 
strong craving by the pigs for wood ashes, considerable quantities 
of which were consumed, if opportunity offered. "Were the ashes 
a benefit to the pigs or not? To answer this question three exper- 
iments were conducted. ^ 

In each trial six pigs, all from one litter, were used, the animals 
being from 105 to 128 days old when the feeding began. The 
previous feed had been liberal in variety and supply, and the 
pigs were well started in their development when the trial began. 
They were divided into three lots of two each, and all lots were 
fed liberally on corn meal, with salt and water additional. Lot I 
received nothing else. Lot II was allowed hard-wood ashes 
supplied in a separate trough. Instead of ashes. Lot III was- 
given a spoonful of bone meal with each feed. In regard to 
the amount of these articles consumed, it may be stated that in 
one of the trials, which lasted 112 days, two pigs consumed 10.5 
pounds of bone meal and 7.5 pounds of salt, and in the same time 
two other pigs consumed 33 pounds of hard-wood ashes and 



» Rept. Wis. Expt. Sta., 1896; Bui. 25. 



Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 



87 



8 pounds of salt. The pigs were confined in pens, with small 
yards at the rear for exercise. The ground in these yards was 
covered with boards to prevent the animals from rooting in the 
earth and eating quantities of it, as those not getting ashes or 
bone meal would have done had opportunity offered. The 
trials lasted from 84 to 128 days without any of the animals 
dying or becoming sick, a surprising fact for the lots living 
wholly on corn meal, salt and water. 

115. What the trials revealed. — As the trials progressed it 
became evident that none of the pigs were properly nurtured, 
though the difference in favor of those getting bone meal or ashes 
was very marked. The pigs allowed neither ashes nor bone meal 
were most plainly dwarfed. It was evident that the corn meal, 
salt and water did not supply all the elements essential to build- 
ing a normal framework of bone and muscle. These dwarfs 
became so fat that the jowls and bellies of some of them nearly 
touched the ground. 

The pigs getting ashes or bone meal grew very well for 
some time, but toward the close of the trial they made only 
fair gains, showing that the nutrients supplied were still too 
limited in character to allow normal development. On slaughter, 
the several lots showed no difference in the proportion of fat 
to lean, nor was there any difference in the size or character 
of the various internal organs. The bones, however, were a most 
interesting study. In the same manner as described in the pre- 
ceding topic, the thigh bones of these pigs were broken in a test- 
ing machine with the results shown below: 

Results with pigs living on corn meal loitli or unthout hone meal and 
hard-ivood ashes in addition — Wisconsin Station. 





When bone 

meal was 

fed. 


When ashes 
were fed. 


W^hen 

neither was 

fed. 


Corn meal required to produce 100 
pounds of gain, pounds 


487 
680 


491 

581 


629 


Average breaking strength of thigh 
bones, pounds 


301 






Average ash in thigh bone, grams 


166 


150 


107 



88 Feeds and Feeding, 

After being broken, the bones were burned to determine the 
ash tliey contained. 

By the table we learn that feeding bone meal or hard- wood 
ashes to pigs otherwise confined to a corn-meal diet effected a 
saving of 23 per cent, in the corn required for 100 pounds of 
gain. We further find that by feeding hard- wood ashes or bone 
meal to pigs otherwise living wholly on corn, the strength of the 
thigh bones was about double that of pigs not allowed bone meal 
or ashes. It was further found that when the bones were burned, 
those of the pigs getting ashes or bone meal contained about 50 
per cent, more ash than the others. This latter fact was sub- 
stantiated in another interesting way. After burning, the bones 
of the pigs which had received no ashes or bone meal crumbled 
at once on handling, while those from the pigs fed ashes or bone 
meal still retained their form after biu-ning and did not crumble 
when carefully handled. 

III. Influence of Wide and Narrow Eations on Crrowth and Fattening. 

116. The Maine Station trial. — At the Maine Station, i Jordan 
conducted a trial with growing and fattening steers, beginning 
with calves and feeding to maturity, for the purpose of deter- 
mining the influence of a ration rich in protein and one relatively 
poor in protein on the rate of growth and character of the flesh 
produced. This is the most elaborate experiment of the kind 
yet conducted in this country, having been wisely planned and 
carefully carried out in all its numerous details. 

117. Plan of experiment. — Four high-grade Short- horn steer 
calves, ranging in age from 5 to 7 months when the trial began, 
were used. Two of these calves were fed a ration rich in protein, as 
given below, while the other two received one ample in its supply 
of nutrients but relatively poor in protein. (133-5) After feed- 
ing 17 months, one steer in each lot was slaughtered and the 
carcasses analyzed; after ten months' more feeding, or 27 months 
in all, the remaining two were slaughtered and the carcasses 
likewise analyzed. The four steers were fed alike at all times on 
roughage, which consisted mostly of timothy hay, some fodder 

1 Rept. 1895. 



Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 



89 



corn and corn silage being fed during the first winter only, 
concentrates for the two lots were as follows: 



The 



Lot I. 
Steers 1 and 2. 
Protein-rich ration. 



Lot IL 

Steel's 3 and 4. 
Protein-poor ration. 

Corn meal, 2 parts. 

Wheat bran, 1 part, by weight. 

Nutritive ratio, 1 : 9.7. 



Linseed meal, 2 parts. 
Corn meal, 1 part. 
Wheat bran, 1 part, by weight. 
Nutritive ratio, 1 : 5.2. 

In this trial no attempt was made to force the steers to rapid 
growth, the aim being rather to keep them gaining steadily. The 
trial was carried to a successful termination, no serious interrup- 
tions of any kind occurring. The feed and gains are presented in 
the following table: 

Total feed eaten and total gains by four steers — Maine Station. 



Number of months fed 

Number of days fed 

Total hay eateh, pounds 

Total fodder and silage eaten, pounds 
Total mixed grains eaten, pounds .... 

Total food eaten, pounds 

Initial weiglitof steers, pounds 

End weight of steers, pounds 

Total gain of each steer, pounds 



LotL 

Fed i)rotein-rich 

food. 



Steer 1, 

17 

514 

3,414 

4,173 

2,211 

9,700 

221 

958 

737 



Steer 2, 

27 

843 

7,783 

4,728 

4,818 

17,329 

345 

1,307 

962 



Lot II. 

Fed protein-poor 

food. 



Steer 3, 

27 

833 

6,811 

4,493 

4,737 

16,041 

285 

1,290 

1.005 



Steer 4. 

17 

521 

3,520 

4,469 

2,2.55 

10,234 

318 

870 

552 



118. Digestible nutrients consumed. — The table shows the total 
feed consumed; the digestible nutrients in this feed are given in 
the accompanying table: 

Digestible matter consumed by the steers — Maine Station. 













Pounds 






Carbohy- 


Ether ex- 


Total 


matter for 






drates. 


tract. 


feed. 


oue pound 
gain. 


Protein-rieh fed. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Steer 1, fed 17 raos. 


619 


2,869 


160 


3,648 


4.95 


Steer 2, fed 27 mos. 


1,265 


5,853 


321 


7,439 


7.73 


Protein-poor fed. 












Steer 3, fed 27 mos. 


700 


6,128 


295 


7,123 


7.08 


Steer 4, fed 17 mos. 


370 


3,264 


154 


3,788 


6.86 



90 



Feeds and Feeding. 



119. Concerning gains. — Our attention is next directed to a con- 
sideration of the gains made by two steers np to the end of the 
17-months period. These are given in the following table: 

Total and relative gains of two lots of steers — Ilaine Station. 





Weight 
pair fed 
more pro- 
tein. 


Weight 
pair fed 
less pro- 
tein. 


Greater 

weiglit of 

protein 

pair. 


Increase 
of differ- 
ence in 
weight. 


At beginning of experiment... 
At end of three months 


Lbs. 

566 
778 
1,010 
1,379 
1,618 
1,861 
1,981 


Lbs. 

603 
746 
921 
1,249 
1,47') 
1,677 
1,807 


Lbs. 

-37 
32 
89 
130 
143 
184 
174 


Lbs. 


69 


At end of six months 


57 


At end of nine montlis 


41 


At end of twelve months 

At end of fifteen months 

At end of seventeen months... 


13 

41 

-10 



The steers getting the richer protein ration made the more 
rapid gains up to 17 months of age, at which time they weighed 
174 pounds more than the other pair. Jordan reports that th(^e 
getting the most protein showed the effects of their food in better 
general appearance and greater thrift. 

120. Gains of remaining steers. — As before stated, at the end 
of 17 months' feeding one steer from each lot was killed and the 
carcasses subjected to analysis. The feeding of the other two 
steers, one in each lot, continued for 10 months longer under the 
same conditions. It is interesting and significant to observe that 
during these last 10 months the steer getting the protein-rich 
ration did not gain as rapidly as the one fed the protein-poor 
ration, so that at the end of 27 months the two animals were 
nearly equal in weight. This is shown in the accomiDanying table: 

Gain of steers fed for the longer period, 27 months — Maine Station. 





Protein-rich 
fed. 


Protein-poor 
fed. 


W^eitflit of steer at beginning 


Ll)s. 

345 
1,307 


Lbs. 

285 


W^ei^'lit of steer at end 


1,290 






Net gain 27 montlis 


962 


1,005 







Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 



91 



Here we are sliown tliat while tlie steer getting the protein-rich 
ration gained 962 pounds in 10 months, the one receiving the 
protein-poor ration made a gain of 1,005 pounds, or 43 pounds 
more than the one fed the ration which at first gave the best 
returns. This result is the surprise of the investigation. 

121. Digestible matter for one pound of growth. — In the follow- 
ing table is presented the digestible matter required for one 
pound of growth during different periods : 

Amount of digestible matter required to produce one pound of growth 
with steers — Maine Station. 



Both steers of each lot, by periods. 


Steers fed 
more protein. 


Steel's fed less 
protein. 


During first three months 


4.0G 
4. 26 
3.83 
6.4.5 
6.97 


5.96 


During second three months 


5.53 


During third three months 


4.35 


During fourth three months 


6.87 


During fifth three months 


8.08 






Average 


5.11 


6 16 






Uach steer, whole period fed. 
Steer No. 1, 514 daj'^s (17 months) 


4.95 
7.73 




Steer No. 2, 843 days (27 months) 




Steer No. 3, 833 days (27 months) 


7.08 


Steer No. 4, 521 days (17 months) 




6.86 









The above table shows that when the calves were building flesh 
and bone, the protein-rich ration was much more effective than 
the other. From the beginning to the end of 15 months' feeding, 
5.11 pounds of digestible nutrients in the protein-rich ration 
proved as effective as 6. 16 pounds of nutrients in the protein-poor 
ration. 

In the second division of the table we learn that with the two 
steers fed for 27 months, 7.73 pounds of the digestible nutrients 
in the protein-rich ration were required during the whole period 
for one pound of ga-in, while only 6.86 pounds of digestible nutri- 
ents were required for one pound of gain with the protein-poor 
ration; that is, while the protein -rich ration was more effective 
during the growing stages, that containing less protein but more 
carbohydrates proved the most efficient at the end of the 27 



92 



Feeds and Feeding. 



months of feeding. This is the second very interesting point, 
and one not in accord with the usual teachings. 

122. Concerning carcasses. — When slaughtered, all the in- 
ternal organs of each steer, together with the blood, were care- 
fully weighed. It was found that there was no difference in the 
amount of blood or in the size of the various organs growing out 
of the character of the feed supplied, nor was there any marked 
difference in the percentage of dressed carcass to live weight for 
the two lots. The composition of the bodies is shown in the fol- 
lowing table: 

Composition of steers'' bodies and of increased f/rowth — Maine Station. 





In fresh material. 


In water-free material. 


except skin. 


Water. 


Dry sub- 
stance. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Ash. 


Two steers fed 27 
months, pounds 

Two steers fed 17 
months, pounds 


1,072.9 

829.2 


924.6 

593.2 


329.3 
248.0 


492.6 
276.9 


102.6 

68.2 


Per cent, composition 
yount^er steers 


243.7 
58.2 

42.4 


331.4 
41.8 

57.6 


81.3 
41.8 

24.5 


215.7 
46.7 

65.1 


84.4 
11.5 


Per cent, composition 
increase for next 10 
months 


10.4 







Here we are shown that the bodies of the steers fed 17 months 
contained 58.2 per cent, water and 41.8 dry substance. Taking 
younger steers for the basis, the increase of the older ones 
during the final 10 months of feeding is shown in the last line of 
the table. From this we learn that 42.4 per cent, increase in 
weight of the steers during the last 10 months was water, while 
57.6 per cent, was dry substance. 



Influence of Feed on the Animal Body. 



93 



123. Composition of carcass. — The data of the composition of 
the dressed carcass are given in the following table, these being 
divided into groups according to the feeding of the steers : 

Percentage composition of dressed carcass, fresh substance — Maine 

Station. 



Protein-rich 



-. . / Steer 1, fed 17 mos. 
^^^^ { Steer 2, fed 27 mos. 



Protein-noor food / ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^'^ "^^^• 
rrotem poor looa | ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ 



Water. 



69.02 
51.91 

52.16 
56.30 



Protein. 



17.89 
16.93 

17.10 
17.82 



Fat. 



18.53 
2;5.86 

25.32 
20.27 



Ash. 



4.56 
5.30 

5.42 
5.61 



Let us first study the carcasses of the steers fed for 17 months. 
That of the steer getting the protein-rich ration contained more 
than 3 per cent, more water, the same amount of protein, and 
nearly 2 per cent, less fat than the other. This is in line with 
other work in showing that one of the results of feeding much 
protein to growing animals is a carcass containing more water. 
For the steers carried through 27 months of feeding there is 
practically no difference in the composition of the carcasses. 

124. Conclusion. — Eeviewing this experiment we are led to con- 
clude that rations rich in protein are more conducive to rapid 
growth and finer general appearance of the animal when young, 
than rations rich in carbohydrates and rather poor in protein. It 
appears that when the protein-poor ration contains enough nitro- 
gen and ash to supply the actual demands of the body, the animal 
carefully conserves them, being enabled thereby to fulfill the laws 
of its nature as to growth. No doubt if the steers getting the 
least protein had been supplied with less protein and ash than 
nature requires for good body-building, they would plainly have 
shown it by an abnormal development; but, fortunately, such con- 
ditions were not laid down in this experiment. This experiment 
and its teachings should be compared with the feeding trials with 
pigs by Sanborn, the writer and others, reported in the first part 
of the chapter, where strongly one-sided rations were fed. 



94 Feeds and Feeding. 

III. Exclusive Meal Feeding — Withholding Coarse Forage 
from Buminants. 

125. Exclusive meal feeding. — In 1874 Mr. Linus W. Miller, 
of New York, reported that for several years he had successfully 
maintained a herd of dairy cows while dry in winter for a period 
of about eight weeks by giving to each animal as its sole feed not 
above three quarts of finely-ground corn meal, daily. ^ It was his 
practice to cut off the hay supply when meal feeding began. At 
first the animals were more or less restless, but they soon quieted 
down, all rumination ceasing. Only a small quantity of water 
was drank. The animals remained in fair flesh. In the spring, 
on changing back to normal feeding, a limited amount of hay was 
at first given and the supply gradually increased. Calves from 
cows thus maintained were strong and healthy. 

A committee was appointed by L. B. Arnold, president of the 
American Dairyman's Association, to visit Mr. Miller's stable and 
report to the Association its findings. The committee reported 
that it found that cows weighing about 900 pounds each had been 
fed exclusively on corn meal for seven weeks at the time of 
inspection, the animals receiving on the average three quarts of 
corn meal each, daily. It further reported: ''The cows did not 
ruminate. Were very quiet; did not evince any inordinate 
desire for food when hay was shown them; not so much as is dis- 
played by cows that are fed on hay alone, in the usual way of 
feeding, a little less than they will eat. Were much more quiet 
than cows fed mostly on meal with a small feeding of hay; say, 
four to five pounds per day. We could not discover any signs of 
suffering or unrest in any way whatever." 

On a second visit of the committee, thirteen days after hay 
feeding had been resumed in the spring, the cows were "filled 
uj) ' ' and did not appear different from others which had been 
wintered in the usual way. The committee further reported 
that the calves from these cows ' ' are of more than ordinary size, 
fleshy, strong, active and healthy. ' ' 

1 Rept. American Dairjinan's Association, 1874; Meal Feeding and 
Animal Digestion, a text-boolv for all who feed condensed food (2d Ed.), 
by Linus W. Miller, pub. by author; Country Gentleman, 1876; Armsby, 
Manual of Cattle Feeding, pp. 878-383. 



Influence of Feed on tlie Animal Body. 95 

This system of feeding, or absence of feeding, excited much 
discussion in the agricultural press at the time, but the practice 
seems never to have become general and the subject is now 
almost forgotten. 

126. Sanborn's trials. — At the Utah Station, i Sanborn main- 
tained a calf six weeks in winter on grain and milk, when, 
through its cravings for coarse forage, the sawdust used for bed- 
ding was eaten, with death as a consequence. Sheep were success- 
fully maintained for several months on grain and roots, with no 
coarse forage whatever. They shrank in weight at first, but 
after the paunch was cleared of coarse feed they made fair gains. 
A two-year-old steer weighing 635 pounds on April 13, was fed 
grain only, with water, until December 2 following, when it 
weighed 825 pounds. Eumination ceased upon withdrawal of 
coarse feed. It was observed that gains in these trials were made 
on about the same amount of feed as is required with pigs. 
Cattle so fed drank very little water, voiding a larger proportion 
as urine thau those fed in the usual manner. The first and second 
stomachs of sheep and cattle so fed weighed less than the average 
for such animals, the first stomach notably so. When slaughtered 
the first stomach was found hardly half full. The blood of the 
steer weighed more than the average, and the lungs less. 

127. Davenport's experiments. — At the Illinois Station, 2 Daven- 
port maintained calves upon skim milk or skim milk and grain 
for long periods. A June calf was maintained exclusively upon 
skim milk until the following January, seven months, by which 
time it refused its feed, could not hold up its head and appeared 
nearly dead. When straw and hay were placed before it they 
were greedily consumed, and three hours later the calf was 
ruminating in contentment, thereafter making satisfactory gains 
upon mixed feed. In a second experiment a calf dropped in May 
subsisted on skim milk only until September, when, although 
consuming seventy pounds of skim milk daily, the creature 
showed great um-est. Some grain was then fed in addition to 
milk, with still unfavorable indications. In October, when hay 
was offered, it was greedily eaten and rumination began five 

1 Bui. 46. » Bui. 21. 



96 Feeds and Feeding. 

and one-lialf hours later. Anotlier calf was maintained from 
June until September upon milk and mixed grains. By tlie latter 
date it evinced no desire for feed and would not rise. Later it 
suddenly died. 

It was observed in these trials that although enormous quantities 
of milk or milk and grain were consumed, there was no fat on the 
carcass or about the kidneys of the calf that died. The muscles," 
instead of being shrunken, were plump but exceedingly dense 
and rigid to the touch. 

128. Conclusions. — The investigations of Davenport show that 
the quantity of food consumed by an animal is not necessarily an 
indication of its economic use, enormous amounts being taken by 
these calves in the vain effort to satisfy an abnormal appetite. 
Under this form of starvation, for such it was, even with the 
liberal suj^ply of the particular food given, there was observed 
''a ravenous appetite followed by enlargement and stiffening of 
the joints, spells of dizziness and difftcult locomotion, all followed 
by periods of relief, and finally by a settled feeling of indiffer- 
ence to food. ' ' 

From these several trials it is evident that mature ruminants 
can be maintained for a considerable period upon a limited 
amount of ground grain, and if liberally supplied therewitli 
they may even gain in weight. With young animals the demand 
of nature seems more imperative, and it appears that calves can- 
not be brought to maturity upon grain and milk, either singly or 
combined, as the sole feed, but must have some coarse forage, 
without which rumination is impossible. 



CHAPTER VII. 

EXPLANATION OF TABLES OE COMPOSITION AND FEEDING STAND- 
ARDS — METHODS OF CALCULATING RATIONS FOE, FARM ANI- 
MALS, ETC. 

I. Tables of Composition and Feeding Standards. 

* 

129. Nutrients of feeding stuffs. — We have already learned how 
the chemist divides the constituents of feeding stuffs into groups, 
which are placed in tables for convenient reference. From Table 
I of the Appendix there is here abstracted the fragment marked 
Example Table A, for the purpose of discussing the subject 
of nutrients in feeding stuffs. 

Example Table A, showing the water and total nutrients found hy the 
cJiemist in several common feeding stuffs. 





Total in 100 pounds. 


Feeding stuffs. 


"Water. 


Protein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitrogen- 
free extract. 


Ether 
extract. 


Roughage. 
Corn stover, field cured.. 
Red clover hay 


Lbs. 

40.5 

15.3 

13.2 

9.2 

10.6 

11.0 

11.9 

9.2 


Lbs. 

3.8 

12.8 

5.9 

4.0 

10.3 
11.8 
15.4 
32.9 


Lbs. 

19.7 
24.8 
29.0 
37.0 

2.2 
9.5 
9.0 

8.9 


Lbs. 

31.5 
38.1 
4.5.0 
42.4 

70.4 
59.7 
53.9 
35.4 


Lbs. 

1.1 
3 3 


Timothy hay 


2 5 


Oat straw 


2 3 


Concentrates. 
Corn, dent 


5 


Oats 


5 


Wheat bran 


4 


Linseed meal, 0. P 


7.9 



In tables of this character the results stated are always the 
average of all analyses for each feed on record at the time of com- 
pilation. 

The table shows that 100 pounds of average field- cured fodder 
corn contain 40.5 pounds of water — a much larger amount than 
the feeder will, off'first thought, suppose possible in what he has 
7 



98 



Feeds and Feeding. 



always regarded as "dry" forage. Of the nutrients in 100 
pounds of stover, 3.8 jiounds are jirotein, while the same weight 
of oat straw contains 4 pounds. Were it not for the large amount 
of water in corn stover, it would exceed straw in protein. Of 
crude fiber, the least valuable constituent of fodders, the stover 
contains 19. 7 pounds, or only about one-half as much as oat straw. 
In nitrogen-free extract straw again leads, containing 42.4 pounds 
against 31.5 in stover. The table shows that the concentrates 
usually contain a higher proportion of protein than the coarse 
fodders, red clover and other legumes excepted. Corn is low in 
crude fiber, while oats are relatively high because of the husk 
which surrounds the oat kernel. The cereals, especially corn, are 
rich in nitrogen-free extract, which is principally starch. Corn 
and oats each contain five pounds of ether extract, and linseed 
meal eight pounds, practically all oil. 

130. Digestion coefficients. — Elsewhere it is shown how the 
animal physiologist through feeding trials and analytical work 
ascertains what percentage of the several nutrients in a feeding 
stuff is digested by farm animals. Table II of the Appendix sum- 
marizes the results of digestion trials with the leading feeds. 
Example Table B, here given, shows the average digestion coef- 
ficients for the feeding stuffs given in Table A. 

Example Table B, shoioing the average coefficients of digestibility for 
the feeding stuffs presented in Table A. 





No. of 

separate 

trials. 


Percentage digestibility. 


Feeding stuffs. 


Dry 

matter. 


Protein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 


Ether 
extract. 


Rovghage. 
Corn stover, all 

va rieties 

Red clover hay 
Timothy hay... 
Oat straw 

Concentrates. 
Corn 


8 

2 

26 

19 

12 
3i) 
11 

3 


60 
55 
57 

48 

91 
70 
61 

79 


45 
55 
48 
30 

76 

78 
79 

89 


67 
46 
52 
54 

58 
20 
22 

57 


61 
64 
63 
44 

93 
76 

69 

78 


62 
53 
60 
33 

86 


Oats 


83 


"Wheat bran 

Linseed meal, 
O. P 


68 
89 







TaJ)les of Composition and Feeding Standards. 99 

The second column of the table shows that eight feeding trials 
have been made with corn stover to determine the digestibility of 
its several components. Sixty per cent, of the dry matter, 45 of the 
protein, 67 of the crude fiber, 61 of the nitrogen-free extract, and 
62 per cent, of the ether extract are, on the average, digested 
from this fodder by the fluids of the alimentary tract and absorbed 
by the animal body. In statements of this character, the aver- 
age of a large number of determinations is more satisfactory and 
reliable than the data of a single trial. 

Table A shows that oat straw contains more protein than corn 
stover. Table B shows that 45 per cent, of the protein in corn 
stover, and only 30 per cent, of that in oat straw, are digestible. 
It shows that the nutrients in the concentrates are more digestible 
than those in roughage, crude fiber excepted. For example, 
78 per cent, of the protein in the oat grain, and only 30 per cent, 
of that in oat straw, are digestible. In corn stover 61 per cent, of 
the nitrogen-free extract is digestible, and in tlie corn grain 93 
per cent. It thus appears that a given quantity of total nutrients 
in concentrated feeding stuffs is usually more valuable than the 
same amount in coarse forage. 

131. Total digestible nutrients. — Example Table C is a por- 
tion of Table III of the Appendix. Having learned the composi- 
tion of the several common feeding stuffs from Table A, and the 
percentage digestibility of each of these nutrients from Table B, 
the student is now in position to consider the third table, derived 
from them, presenting the digestible substance in 100 pounds of 
each of the feeding stufi's under consideration. The statement 
for each nutrient in this table is determined by multiplying its 
composition, as given in Table A, by the factor of digestibility in 
Table B. 



100 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Example Table C, showing the digestibility in feeding stuffs comidered 
under Tables A and B, 



Feeding stuff's. 


Total 

dry 

matter. 


Total digestible substance 
in 100 pounds. 


Nutritive 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
extract. 


ratio. 


Roughage. 
Corn stover 


Lbs. 

59.5 

84.7 
86.8 
90.8 

89.4 
89.0 
88.1 
90.8 


Lbs. 

1.7 

6.8 
2.8 
1.2 

7.8 

9.2 

12.2 

29.3 


Lbs. 

32.4 
35.8 
43.4 
38.6 

66.7 
47.3 
39.2 
32.7 


Lbs. 

0.7 
1.7 
1.5 

0.8 

4.3 
4.2 
2.7 
7.0 


1 • 20 


Tied clover hay 


1-58 


Timothy hay 


1 • 16 7 


Oat straw 


1 • 33 7 


Concentrates. 

Corn or corn meal 

Oats 


1 :9.8 
1:62 


Wheat bran 


1-37 


Oil meal, 0. P 


1:17 







Table A shows that corn stover contains 3.8 pounds of protein 
and oat straw 4 pounds; 45 per cent, of the protein in stover, and 
only 30 per cent, of that in straw, are digestible; consequently 100 
pounds of average corn stover contain 1.7 pounds of digestible 
protein, while the same weight of oat straw contains only 1.2 
pounds. Thus it is shown that although oat straw contains more 
total protein than corn stover, the latter has more digestible pro- 
tein. In digestible protein clover hay stands in strong contrast 
with oat straw, — 100 pounds of the former containing 6.8 ijounds 
against 1.2 pounds for the straw. Corn contains 66.7 pounds of 
digestible carbohydrates per hundred weight, while corn stover 
contains 32.4 pounds, or one-half as much. 

132. Nutritive ratio. — This expression, not heretofore used, is 
common with the student of feeding problems and should be 
understood by all, since it is helpful in studying different feeding- 
substances. By ''nutritive ratio" is meant the ratio which exists 
between the amount of the digestible protein in a given feeding 
stuff and the amount of the digestible carbohydrates and ether 
extract it contains. It is ascertained in the following manner: 
The amount of digestible ether extract is multiplied by 2.4, 
because ether extract is considered as having this heat value com- 



Tables of Composition and Feeding Standards. 101 

pared with the carbohydrates. ^ The product obtained is added 
to the total quantity of digestible carbohydrates in the given fod- 
der and the sum is divided by the digestible protein. 

The method of calculating the nutritive ratio for corn stover, 
the digestible nutrients in which are protein 1.7, carbohydrates 
32.4, and ether extract 0.7, is as follows: 

Ether Heat 

extract. equivalent. 

.7 X 2.4 = 1.68 

Carbohy- 
drates. 
1.68 + 32.4 = 34.08 
Protein. 
34.08 -i- 1.7 = 20 + 

Nutritive ratio 1 : 20. 

In expressing the nutritive ratio of corn stover thus, 1 : 20, it 
is meant that for each pound of digestible protein in corn stover 
there are 20 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and ether-extract 
equivalent. The nutritive ratios of the several feeds are placed 
in the last column of the table. The nutritive ratio of oat straw 
is shown by the table to be 1 : 33.7. This is called a '' wide " ratio 
because of the very large quantity of carbohydrates contained 
in this feed in proportion to the protein. With Indian corn the 
nutritive ratio is 1 : 9.8. Such an expression is spoken of as a 
''medium" ratio. In oil meal the nutritive ratio is 1 : 1.7, the 
protein almost equaling the carbohydrates and fat combined. 
Such an expression is called a ' ' narrow ' ' nutritive ratio. 

133. Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards. — Step by step we have 
advanced until it is shown in the last table what portion of feed- 
ing stuffs is available for the nutrition of farm animals. Let us 
next direct attention to the quantity of the several nutrients 
in feeding stuffs required by farm animals. AVhile analytical work 
and digestion trials were in progress by the physiologist and 
chemist, feeding trials were being conducted to determine how 
much protein, carbohydi-ates and ether extract were required to 
properly nurture farm animals of the several classes, under various 

1 American writers generally use the factor 2,2 or 2.25. See Article 61. 



102 



Feeds and Feeding. 



conditions. The following Example Table D from Table IV 
of the Appendix presents the food requirements of certain farm 
animals: 

Example Table B, showing the amount of dry matter and digestible 
nutrients required daily by farm animals per 1,000 pounds live 
weight. 



Ox at complete rest in 
stall 

Fattening cattle (first 
period) 

Milch cow (yielding 22 
pounds daily) 

Horse (medium worli).... 



Dry 

matter. 



Lbs. 
18.0 

30.0 

29.0 
24.0 



Digestible nutrients. 



Protein. 



Lbs. 
0.7 



2.5 
2.0 



Carbohy- 
drates. 



Lbs. 
8.0 

15.0 

13.0 
11.0 



Ether 
extract. 



Lbs. 
0.1 

0.5 

0.5 
0.6 



Nutritive 
ratio. 



1 :11.8 

1 :6.5 

1 :5.7 
1 :6.2 



jjoTE.— The " Sum of nutx-ients " in the larger table has been omitted 
from this table in order to simplify the explanation. 

The first subject for consideration is the amount of nutrients 
required to maintain an ox weighing 1,000 pounds when at rest 
in the stall, neither gaining nor losing in weight. The table 
states this to be as follows: Dry matter, 18 pounds; digestible 
protein, .7 pounds; digestible carbohydrates, 8 pounds; ether 
extract, .1 pound. A ration containing these nutrients has a nutri- 
tive ratio of 1 : 11.8. (443) Although the ox is referred to as 
'^at rest," nevertheless work is being accomplished. The heart 
is forcing blood currents through the body, and digestion and 
assimilation are in progress; even the act of standing and breath- 
ing constitutes work. Each of the many manifestations of life 
calls for food-fuel and repair material. Conceding that the above 
feeding standard is correct, the ox which receives less nutrients 
than here stated will lose in weight, while if more are allowed 
he will increase in weight. 

II. Calculating Eations for Farm Animals. 
134. Ration for the steer at rest.— With Table C, giving the 
digestible nutrients in several common feeding stuffs, and Table D, 
stating the requirements of the ox for maintenance, we have the 



Calculating Bations for Farm Animals. 



103 



data for calculating how much, feed should be supplied in order 
to maintain this animal. 

For the trial ration, we decide to use 10 pounds of corn stover 
and 10 pounds of oat straw. Let us ascertain the digestible 
nutrients these will supply. 

Calculations for dry matter and digestible nutrients in corn stover and 

oat straw. 

Corn stover. 

In 100 
pounds. 

Dry matter 59.5 

Protein 1.7 - 

Carbohydrates 32.4 ^ 

Ether extract .7 - 

Oat straw. 

Drymatter 90.8- 

Protein 1.2 -^ 

Carbohydrates 38.6 

Ether extract .8 

Arranging these in a table, with the Wolff-Lehmann standard 
for comparison, we have: 

Fii^st trial maintenance ration for ox at rest weiglnng 1^000 pounds — 
Wolff- LeJimann Standard. 



100 


X 


10 


In 10 
pounds 

= 5.95 


100 


X 


10 


= .17 


100 


X 


10 


= 3.24 


100 


X 


10 


= .07 


100 


X 


10 


= 9.08 


100 


X 


10 


= .12 


100 


X 


10 


= 3.86 


100 


X 


10 


= .08 





Dry 

matter. 


Digestible nutrients. 


Nutritive 
ratio. 


Feeding stuffs. 


Protein. 


Carbolij'-- 
drates. 


Ether 
extract. 


Corn stover, 10 pounds . . . 


Lbs. 

5.95 
9.08 


Lbs. 

.17 
.12 


Lbs. 

3.24 

3. 80 


Lbs. 

.07 

.08 




Oat straw, 10 pounds 








First trial ration 


15.03 


.29 


7.10 


.15 








Wolff-Lehmann stand' rd 


18.0 


.7 


8. 


.10 


1:11.8 



The trial ration falls below the standard in everything except 
ether extract, the deficiency being especially marked as to protein. 



104 



Feeds and Feeding. 



To complete tlie ration there is added one pound eacli of oil meal 
and corn meal. Ascertaining the nutrients in these as before, we 
have the second trial maintenance ration, which is as follows: 

Second trial maintenance ration for ox at rest weighing 1,000 jjounds — 
Wolff-Lehmann Standard. 





Dry 

matter. 


Digestible nutrients. 


Nutritive 
ratio. 


Feeding stuffs. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
extract. 


Ration as above 


Lbs. 

15.03 

.908 
.894 


Lbs. 

.29 
.293 

.078 


Lbs. 

7.10 
.327 
.667 


Lbs. 

.15 

.07 
.043 




Oil meal, 1 pound 




Corn meal, 1 pound 






Second trial ration 


16.832 


.661 


8.094 


.263 


1 : 12.5 






Wolff-Lehmann stand'rd 


18.0 


.7 


8.0 


.10 


1:11.8 



This second trial ration falls below the standard by more than 
a pound of dry matter, but this deficiency is of small importance. 
In protein the ration is almost up to the standard, exceeding it 
slightly in carbohydrates, and considerably in ether extract. 

The nutritive ratio of this ration is 1 : 12. 5. The ration approx- 
imates the standard as closely as can be attained without using 
fractions of pounds, and near enough for purposes of illustration. 
From this we learn that ten pounds each of corn stover and oat 
straw, and one pound each of oil meal and corn meal per day, will 
nurture a steer weighing 1,000 pounds so that he will neither gain 
nor lose in weight — that is, such a combination constitutes a 
'■ '■ maintenance ' ' ration. 

135. A ration for the fattening steer. — Example Table D shows 
that the fattening steer (first joeriod) requires more than three 
times as much protein, five times as much ether extract, and 
nearly twice as much carbohydrates, as constitute a maintenance 
ration, with the nutritive ratio narrowed to 1 : 6. 5. It is apparent 
that more concentrated feed must enter into this ration than into 
the first one. For a trial ration we choose 10 i)ounds of corn 



Calculating Bations for Farm Animals. 



105 



stover, 8 pounds of oat straw and 12 pounds of corn. Calculating 
the nutrients in these as in the first instance, we have: 

First trial ration for the rapid fattening of a steer weighing 1,000 
pounds {first period) — Wolff- Lehmann Standard. 





Diy 

matter. 


Digestible nutrients. 


Nutritive 
ratio. 


Feeding stuffs. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
extract. 


Com stover, 10 pounds ... 

Oat straw, 8 pounds 

Com 12 pounds 


Lbs. 

5.95 

7.264 

10.728 


Lbs. 

.17 

.096 

.936 


Lbs. 

3.24 

3.088 
8.004 


Lbs. 

.07 

.064 

.516 














23.942 


1.202 


14.332 


.6-50 








WolfT-Lehmann stand' rd 


30.0 


2.5 


15.0 


.50 


1:6.5 



This trial ration falls below the standard in eaeh nutrient, 
especially in protein. Some feed rich in protein should be added; 
and accordingly 4 pounds of oil meal, O. P., are used. 

Second trial ration for the rajrid fattening of a steer — Wolff -Lehmann 

Standard. 





Dry 

matter. 


Digestible nutrients. 


Nutritive 
ratio. 


Feeding stuffs. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
extract. 


Ration as above 


Lbs. 

23.942 
3.632 


Lbs. 

1.202 
1.172 


Lbs. 

14.332 
1.308 


Lbs. 

.65 

.28 




Oil meal, 0. P., 4 pounds 






Second trial ration 


27.574 


2.374 


15.640 


.93 


1 : 7.5 






Wolff-Lehmann stand'rd 


30.0 


2.5 


15.00 


.50 


1:6.5 



This ration falls below the standard by nearly 2.5 pounds of 
dry matter and a little more than .1 of a pound protein. There 
is an excess of both carbohydrates and ether extract. By re- 
ducing the allowance of corn meal one pound and increasing 



106 



Feeds and Feeding. 



the oil meal by tlie same amount, the standard would be more 
nearly reached, although there is already a fairly close agreement. 
This shows that the fattening steer weighing 1,000 pounds will 
be nurtured to very nearly his full requirement when receiving 
the following ration: 10 pounds of corn stover, 8 pounds of oat 
straw, 12 pounds of corn, 4 pounds of oil meal. 

136. Calculating a ration for the dairy cow. — In determining 
a ration for a dairy cow yielding 22 pounds of milk daily, we 
choose from the list of feeds in Table C, 8 pounds of red clover 
hay, 10 pounds of corn stover, 3 pounds of oat straw, for rough- 
age, and 5 pounds each of corn meal and bran for concentrates. 
The digestible nutrients in these are ascertained as follows: 

Calculations for dry matter and digestible nutrients in trial 
raiion for dairy cow. 

Corn stover. 



Red clover hay. 

In 100 In S 

pounds. pounds. 

84.7-^100x8 = 0.776 

6.8^-100x8= .544 

35.8^100X8 = 2.864 

1.7 -^100X8= .130 

Oat «traw. 

In 100 In 3 

pounds. pounds. 

90.8^100X3 = 2.724 

1.2-^100x3= .036 

38.6-4-100x3 = 1.158 

.8h-100x3= .024 



In 100 In 10 

pounds. pounds. 

59.5-^100x10=5.95 

1.7-f-100xlO= .17 

32.4^-100x10=3.24 

.7-^100x10= .07 

Corn meal. 

In 100 In 5 

pounds. pounds. 

89.4-^100x5=4.47 
7.8-^100x5= .39 

06.7-^100x5=3.335 
4.3-^100x5= .215 



In 100 
)ouiids. 


Bran. 

In 5 
pounds. 


88. 1-; 


^100X5 = 4.405 


12. 2-; 


^-100X5= .61 


39.2^ 


^100X5 = 1.96 


2.7-; 


hl00x5= .135 



Arranging these results in tabular form, with the Wolff- Leh- 
mann standard for comparison, we have the following: 



Calculating Rations for Farm Animals. 



107 



First trial ration for dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 22 
pounds of milk daily — Wolff- Lehmann Standard. 





Dry 

matter. 


Digestible nutrients. 


Nutri- 


Feeding stuffs. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
extract. 


tive 
ratio. 


Red clover hay, 8 pounds .. 

Corn stover, 10 pounds 

Oat straw 3 pounds 


Lbs. 

6.776 

5.95 

2.724 

4.47 

4.405 


Lbs. 

.544 

.17 

.036 

.39 

.61 


Lbs. 

2.864 

3.24 

1.158 

3.335 

1.96 


Lbs. 

.136 

.07 

.024 

.215 

.135 








Corn meal, 5 pounds 

Bran 5 iiounds . . 










First trial ration 


24.325 


1.750 


12.557 


.580 








Wolff-Lelimann standard.. 


29.0 


2.5 


13.0 


.50 


1 :5.7 



This trial ration falls considerably below the standard, espe- 
cially in protein, and to correct this, 3 pounds of oil meal are 
added. 

Second trial ration for dairy coic weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 
22 pomids of milk daily — Wolff-Lehmann Standard. 





Dry 

matter. 


Digestible nutrients. 


Nutri- 


Feeding stuffs. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
extract. 


tive 
ratio. 




Lbs. 

24.32.5 

2.724 


Lbs. 

1.750 

.879 


Lbs. 

12.557 
.981 


Lbs. 

.580 
.21 




Ration as above 




Oil meal 3 pounds .... 








Second trial ration 


27.049 


2.629 


13.538 


.79 


1:5.9 






Wolff-Lehmann standard .. 


29.0 


2.5 


13.0 


.50 


1:5.7 



The second trial ration is 2 pounds below the standard in dry 
matter, something of little significance as it is really of satisfactory 
volume as it stands. All the nutrients are slightly in excess of 
the standard, the nutritive ratio being 1:5.9, while the standard 
calls for 1:5.7. 

We learn from this tljat a satisfactory ration for a dairy cow 
weighing 1,000 pounds and yielding 22 pounds of milk daily 
may be composed of the following: Eed clover, 8 pounds j corn 



108 Feeds and Feeding. 

stover, 10 pounds; corn meal and bran, eacli 5 pounds; oat straw 
and oil meal, eacli 3 pounds. 

137. Concerning rations. — In preparing a ration it is well to start 
with what may be called a ' ' trial ' ' ration, composed of two or 
more kinds of coarse forage with a moderate sui^ply of some 
desirable concentrate. When the nutrients these furnish have 
been placed in tabular form, a few trials will determine the 
quantity of other concentrates necessary to bring the ration up 
to the standard. It is usually impossible to compound rations 
for ruminants from common American feeding stuffs which will 
furnish the large amount of dry matter called for by the Wolff- 
Lehmann standard. While volume is an important factor in 
feeding, it is better to allow the ration to fall below the standard 
in dry matter than to add so much coarse forage with its larger 
percentage of inert matter. Our common feeding materials are 
of such composition that in placing enough of them in the ration 
to furnish the requisite protein and carbohydrates, there is usually 
an excess of ether extract according to the standard, but this 
cannot be avoided. There is no direct way of calculating the 
exact quantities of the nutrients to be used in formulating rations, 
the desired result being reached only by repeated trials, each 
bringing the calculation nearer the desired standard. With the 
explanations given, the stockman should find no difficulty in 
calculating rations for the farm animals under his care. 

III. Feeding Tables and Standards. 

138. The first feeding table. — The first attempt to systematically 
compare various feeding stuffs one with another was by Thaer, i 
who in 1810 published a table giving what he termed ^'hay 
equivalents." With common hay as the standard unit, the feed- 
ing values were in part as follows: 

One hundred pounds meadow hay is equal in feeding value to — 
200 pounds potatoes. 602 pounds cabbages. 

625 pounds mangels. 91 pounds clover hay. 

417 pounds rutabagas. 91 pounds alfalfa hay. 

Naturally, opinions varied as to the comparative values of vari- 
» Thaer, Landwirtschaft, New Ed., 1880, p. 211. 



Feeding Tables and Standards. 109 

ous feeding stuffs, and so there were about as many tables of '^ hay 
equivalents ' ' as there were writers on economic agriculture. Im- 
perfect as it was, Thaer's table served to draw attention to an 
important subject and Wiis the beginning of something far more 
elaborate and useful. 

139. The first feeding standard. — In 1859 Grouven^ proposed 
the first feeding standard for farm animals, based on the total 
quantity of protein, carbohydrates and ether extract found by 
analysis in feeding stuffs. This standard fell short of require- 
ments, since it considered the total nutrients instead of the digesti- 
ble portion. 

140. Wolff's standards.— In 1864, Dr. Emil v. Wolff, the great 
German scientist and author, published for the first time, in 
Mentzel & v. Lengerke'.s Agricultural Calendar, standards based 
upon the digestible nutrients of feeding stuffs. In these stand- 
ards the attempt was made to meet the physiological require- 
ments of the animal by supplying sufficient protein, carbohydrates 
and ether extract for all the needs of the body, without waste of 
any of the nutrients. Wolff's feeding standards have become 
popular among the more progressive American farmers and 
stockmen and have been used wherever agricultural science 
is recognized. Their popularity is due in a large measure to 
their simplicity, ease of application, and the positive character 
of the statements made. In these standards, accompanied by 
tables of digestibility, the stockman has before him the data 
necessary to calculate rations for the different farm animals, little 
or nothing being left in uncertainty. 

141. Kuehn's position. — The strength of Wolff's standards is 
also their weakness, for such mathematical statements cannot 
stand without marked qualifications when dealing with the com- 
plex problem of animal life and its nurture by food. 

Julius Kiihn, another German writer and investigator of the 
highest repute, holds ^ that Wolff's standards ''are objectionable 
and misleading to the farmer." According to this author, Wolff 



^ Feeding Standards for Domestic Animals, Expt. Sta. Rec, vol. IV; 
also Agricultur-Chemie, K51n, 1859, p. 603. 

2 Feeding Standards for Domestic Animals, Expt. Sta. Rec, vol. IV, 
pp. 6-13. 



110 Feeds and Feeding. 

is incorrect when lie bases the total quantity of food to be sup- 
plied on the organic substance contained, instead of the dry 
matter, as originally stated by Lingenthal and Grouven. Again, 
Wolff ijlaces the allowance of organic matter required by the 
dairy cow at 25 pounds; Kiihn tells us this may vary between the 
extremes of 20 and 33.5 pounds. Changes in the amount of dry 
matter supplied should, however, always be gradual. Kiihn fur- 
ther protests against prescribing exact quantities of nutrients as 
norms or standards. ''For the individual nutrients, as for the 
total amount of food, it is essential to determine the amount for 
<3ach individual case, and in doing this the jiarticular conditions 
should be considered." Wolff does not distinguish between 
digestible albuminoids and amides; Kiihn holds that the lower 
nutritive effect of amide compounds can no longer be doubted, 
and that these amides can at best serve only as albuminoid con- 
servers, like the carbohydrates, and further that the non-albu- 
minoid protein includes compounds which do not even exert this 
conserving action and whose nutritive function is very doubtful. 
Grouven fixed the total protein (digestible and indigestible) 
for the dairy cow at 2.74 pounds, while Wolff places the standard 
at 2.5 of digestible albuminoids and amides. Kiihn states that 
the cow of high productive capacity during her largest flow of 
milk requires more than 2.5 pounds of digestible protein, while 
smaller amounts than Wolff names should be given with dimin- 
ishing milk flow. Again, the ether extract or so-called "fat" 
of food varies in nutritive effect according to its origin; that from 
oil cake, for example, having a higher feeding value than that 
found in coarse fodders. In the same way, nitrogen-free extract 
includes substances of variable composition, some of which are 
of questionable nutritive value, and to count all these as equiva- 
lent to starch for feeding purposes is far from correct. Finally, 
Kiihn lays stress on the imj^ortance of individual feeding, declar- 
ing that the stockman must carefully study the requirements of 
each animal and nourish it according to its individual wants, 
instead of placing all members of the herd or flock on inflexible 
rations constructed according to definite standards. He con- 
cludes that fodders vary so greatly in composition that to use 



Feeding Tables and Standards. Ill 

average analyses in calculating rations with tlie exactness pre- 
scribed by Wolff may lead to very unsatisfactory results. 

142. The Wolff-Lehmann standard. — Wolff's feeding standards 
were given annually in the Mentzel-Lengerke Agricultural Cal- 
endar from 1864 to 1896. The calendar for 1897 was prepared by 
Dr. C. Lehmann of the Berlin Agricultural College. This table 
is changed from Wolff's in several particulars. '^Dry matter" 
takes the place of "organic matter" in Wolff's table. A 
double column not used by Wolff is headed "Sum of nutrients." 
In the first of these columns all of the digestible crude fiber is 
included with the other nutrients. In the second column only 
one-half of the crude fiber found digestible is included. Leh- 
mann recognizes the varying wants of dairy cows by classifying 
them in four divisions according to the milk they yield, the 
heaviest milkers receiving the most nutrients. 

While Wolff's tables have heretofore been universally used 
in this country, it seems proper to adopt the modifications of 
Lehmann. 

143. Introduction of standards in America. — Feeding standards 
were first brought to the attention of Americans by Atwater^ in 
1874, and the efforts of this teacher and investigator have fortu- 
nately been continued in the same line to the present time, greatly 
to the advancement of scientific agriculture in this coimtry. 
Armsby's Manual of Cattle Feeding, based on AVolff 's book^ on 
the same subject, appeared in 1880 and marked an era in the 
educational development of this topic. From these sources the 
students in our agricultural colleges, writers and lecturers have 
come to know of feeding standards, and through them, thousands 
of feeders have learned to calculate rations for farm animals. 

IV. The Several Feeding Standards. 

144. The maintenance ration for the ox. — In 1879 Sanborn,'^ of 
the Kew Hampshire Agricultm^al College, reported that the steer 
could be maintained on a smaller amount of hay than called for 
by Wolff's standard. Subsequent experiments by this investi- 

iRept. Me. State Bd. Agr., 1874; Rept. Secy. Conn. Bd. Agr., 1874-^. 

2 Futteruugslehre, 1st ed., 1874; 6th ed., 1895. 

« Rept. N. H. Bd. Agr., 1879. See also subsequent reports. 



112 Feeds and Feeding. 

gator confirmed his statement that Wolff's maintenance standard 
was really sufficient in nutrients to allow the animal to make a 
gain in weight. These statements were at first controverted, ^ the 
assumption being that the Germans must be right and the Ameri- 
can investigator wrong. At the Cornell University Station, 2 
Caldwell, feeding four steers on a ration containing the following 
nutrients: dry substance 15.3, protein .68, carbohydrates and fat 
8.G (nutritive ratio, 1: 13.2), secured the following: 

Weight of 4 steers, January 20, 3,492 i)ounds. 
Weight of 4 steers, March 21, 3,672 pounds. 

Here is a gain of 180 pounds in two months on a maintenance 
ration according to Wolff. 

Eeviewing his own and the work of others, Caldwell wrote: 
"The results of the many tests to which they (standard rations) 
have been subjected at various places in the country make it 
evident that with such data as we at present have at command, 
no ration can be calculated that will do the same work or pro- 
duce the effect for which it was calculated in all cases, and per- 
haps not even in a majority of cases, and that sometimes such 
rations entirely fail to accomj^lish the purpose for which they 
were calculated and used." 

145. Kuehn's standard maintenance ration. — Investigations ex- 
tending from 1882 to 1890 by G. Kiihn^ show that the full-grown 
ox kept in perfect quiet in the stall can be maintained on .7 
pounds of digestible protein and 6.6 pounds of digestible nitrogen- 
free extract for each one thousand pounds of live weight. If more 
nutrients than these are supplied, each one hundred grams of 
digestible starch may cause a deposit of 20 to 24 grams of fat in 
the body of the ox. 

146. Woll's findings. — At the Wisconsin Station, ^ Woll ascer- 
tained by correspondence with a number of the leading dairymen 
of America the composition of the rations which they had used 
successfully with their herds. Eeports were received from the 
managers of 128 herds including more than 3,000 cows. 

* See various articles, Rural New-Yorker, 1882. 
2 Rept. 1883-85. 

• 3 Ldw. Vers. Stat., 44, p. 257. 

* Bui. 38; Rept. 1894. 



Feeding Tables and Standards. 



113 



Grouping the returns by sections, and calculating the dry and 
digestible matter in the rations reported, the following table was 
prepared: 

Rations fed by 128 American dairymen as ascertained by Woll — 
Wisconsin Station. 





No. of 

rations 

fed. 


Dry 

matter. 


Digestible matter. 


Nutri- 


Where ration was 
fed. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


Total. 


tive 
ratio. 


Eastern states 

Middle states 

Southern states 

Western states 

Canada 


55 

56 

2 

6 

9 


Lbs. 

24.38 
24.64 
23.48 
29.28 
21.57 


Lbs. 

2.20 
2.08 
2.00 
3.05 
1.76 


Lbs. 

13.31 
13.37 
12.14 
14.58 
11.69 


Lbs. 

. 77 

l!05 
.75 
.63 


Lbs. 

16.28 
16.17 
15.19 
18.38 
14.08 


1 :6.8 
1 :7.2 
1 :7.2 
1 :5.3 
1 : 7.4 







In these averages we observe a wide variation in the nutrients 
fed, the minimum falling much below Wolff's standard, while the 
maximum materially exceeds it. As a summary report of the 
rations fed by leading American dairymen, this table is valuable, 
representing as it does the practice of so many experienced feeders. 
On the other hand, it is unsatisfactory because in many cases the 
feed was not weighed, the figures reported being estimates. 

147. Studies by the Connecticut (Storrs) Station. — Atwater and 
Phelps, of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station, ^ studied in person the 
rations used by a number of dairymen in their state. Tlieir work 
included weighing and sampling the feed and the milk, both of 
which were analyzed by the Station, (681) The following table 
presents the extremes observed in these studies: 

Minimum and maximum rations fed by Connecticut dairymen as deter- 
mined by Atwater and Phelps — Connecticut (Storrs) Station. 



Minimum, 27 rations... 

Maximum, 27 rations .. 

Average 27 rations .. 



Organic 
matter. 



Lbs. 

20.5 
33.7 
25.5 



Digestible 
protein. 



Lbs. 

1.35 

3.48 
2.36 



Digestible 

ether ex 

tract. 



Lbs. 

.56 
1.36 

,87 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates. 



Lbs. 

10.47 
18.25 
13.76 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 



1 : 4.5 
1 :11.3' 
1 : 6.7 



i Rept. 1896. 
8 



114 



Feeds and Feeding. 



148. Standard rations for dairy cows. — From tlie reports of 128 
American dairymen gathered by WoU, that investigator deduces 
what he calls the American ration for dairy cows. Based 
on their x)ersonal study of dairy herds covering three winters 
as just noted, Atwater and Phelps of the Storrs Station offer a 
tentative standard. Below are grouped the several standards for 
convenient reference by the student. 

American and German feeding standards for dairy cows. — Digestible 
nutrients per day per 1, 000 pounds live loeight. 





Dry 

matter. 


Digestible nutrients. 


Nutri- 
tive 




Protein, 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
extract. 


ratio. 


Wolff original (German) 
feeding ration 


Lbs. 

24.0* 

24.5 

25.0* 

2.5.0 
27.0 
29.0 
32.0 


Lbs. 

2.5 

2.15 

2.5 

1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 


Lbs. 

12.5 
13.27 
12 to 13 

10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 


Lbs. 

0.4 
.74 
.5 to .8 

0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 


1:5.4 


Woll jjroposed American 
ration 


1:6.9 


Atwater & Plielps pro- 
posed standard 


1:5.6 


Wolft-Lehmaun German 
ration 




I. When giving 11 lbs. of 
milk daily 


1 :6.7 


II. When giving 16J lbs. 
of milk daily 


1 : 6.0 


III. When giving 22 lbs. 
of milk daily 


1 :5.7 


IV. When giving 27J lbs. 
of milk dail V 


1:4.5 







* Organic matter. 

Kiihn's^ standard ration for a thousand-pound dairy cow under 

varying conditions is as follows: 

Pounds. 

Dry matter 20-33.5 

Digestible albuminoids 1.5-2.4 

Digestible ether extract 4- .7 

Digestible nitrogen-free extract, assimilable crude fiber, and 

amides 12 - 14 

Nutritive ratio 1 : 5.5-8 

Reviewing the above, it is found that Woll's proposed American 

dairy ration calls for less protein and more carbohydrates and 

ether extract than Wolffs, the nutritive ratio being 1 : 6.9 against 

1 : 5.4. Atwater and Phelps' proposed standard coincides with 

» Die zweckmassigste Emiihrung des Rindviehes, 1887, p. 257. 



Feeding Tables and Standards. 115 

Wolff's in protein, while the digestible carbohydrates run from 
12 to 13 pounds and the fat from .5 to .8 pounds. The Wolff- 
Lehmann standard gives a wide range according to the milk yield. 

149. Concerning Kuehn's ration. — Kiihn's method of procedure 
in compounding a ration is different from those already discussed. 
He first sets forth a basal ration composed principally of coarse 
forage carrying the nutriment required by the cow when giving 
little or no milk. This basal ration should contain 1.5 to 1.7 
pounds of digestible albuminoids per thousand pounds live weight, 
and may exceed this with animals of exceptional capacity. A 
like proportion of non-nitrogenous and ether-extract nutrients go 
with the basal ration. To this is added an amount of concen- 
trates sufficient to enable the cow to yield the best returns. 
Animals of low productive capacity are fed a small ration, while 
those capable of large returns are liberally supplied with nutri- 
ents. The range of dry matter and nutrients for cows of different 
capacities is given in the table. 

Kiihn couvSiders the albuminoids only, as available for protein 
nutrition, and jjlaces the amides with the carbohydrates. In con- 
structing his ration he recognizes the great variability of feeding 
stuffs as to composition, and holds the individuality of the cow as 
something of great importance. His idea, if fully carried out, 
would necessitate a chemical analysis of all the different feeding 
stuffs used each season, something impracticable under ordinary 
conditions. 

149a. Fuel value of rations. — In Article 61 the following fuel 
values are shown for the several imtrients in feeding stuffs: 

Calories in one i^ound. 

Protein 1,860 

Carbohydrates 1,860 

Ether extract 4,210 

It has been proposed that these Calorie values be assigned to 
the digestible nutrients of the ration for the purpose of simplify- 
ing the results. Atwater writes on this pointed '^This use of 
fuel values gives a means of simplifying the calculation of rations. 
It will be understood that the proportions of fats and carbohy- 
drates are only relative; in other words, that one may be dimin- 

1 Rept. of Storrs (Coun.) Expt. Sto., 1890, p. 179. 



116 



Feeds and Feeding. 



ished if tlie otlier be correspondingly increased. If our theories 
are correct, the important matter is to provide sufficient protein 
and sufficient total energy without varying too much from the 
most desirable relative proportions of the fats and carbohydrates." 
The Calories in the second trial ration for the dairy cow 
reported under Article 136 are determined in the following 
manner: The digestible protein and digestible carbohydrates of 
the ration are added together and the sum is multiplied by 1,860, 
the fuel value of one pound of these nutrients. In the same 
manner the ether extract is multiplied by 4,240, its fuel value. 
The calculations are as follows: 

In ration. 



Protein 

Lbs. 


Carbohydrates 

Lbs. 


Total 

Lbs. 


2.G29 


+ 


13.538 = 


16.167 


Protein and 

Carboliydrates 

Lbs. 




Calories in 
one pound 


Calories. 


16.167 


X 


1,860 = 


30,070 


Ether extract 

Lbs. 








.79 


X 


4,240 = 


3,350 


Total 


in ration 


33,420 



Arranging the digestible nutrients and Calories for the standard 
ration for the cow when giving 22 pounds of milk daily, and for 
the second trial ration for the dairy cow as calculated above, the 
following: table is derived: 



Digestible nutrients. 



Protein. 



Carbohy- 
drates. 



Ether 
extract. 



Calories. 



WolfF-Lehmann stivndard foi* 
daily cow 

Second trial ration for dairy 
cow 



Lbs. 



2.G29 



Lbs. 

13.0 
13.538 



Lbs. 

.50 

.79 



30,950 
33,420 



By the table we learn that the digestible nutrients in the stand- 
ard ration for the cow when giving 22 pounds of milk daily, 
would, on combustion, yield 30,950 Calories, while the second 
trial ration given in Article 136 yields 33,420 Calories, an excess 
above the standard of nearly 10 per cent. 



Value of the Different Nutrients. 117 

While it is important from a scientific standpoint to study the 
fuel value of rations, such use in compounding them for practi- 
cal purposes is hardly warranted, since a statement of the several 
nutrients themselves is more explicit and satisfactory. 

150. Conclusions relative to feeding standards. — The vast 
amount of work of the chemist and physiologist as shown in the 
several tables under discussion in this chapter must be apparent 
to every student who has followed the subject to this point. 
When one learns that these tables after all are not what they first 
seem as to exactness and reliability, he is tempted to cast them 
aside as of no value in the conduct of his feeding operations. Due 
reflection will check such a course, for enormous gain hiis already 
come to our stock interests from this source. Tables of chemical 
composition and feeding standards are efforts toward a desired 
end, and the student will always study these with interest, and 
the prudent feeder will never ignore them in his care of live stock. 

V. Flacing Money Values on the Different Nutrients in Feeding 8tuffs, 

151. Character of the inquiry. — Since commercial fertilizers are 
sold on their content of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, it 
seems possible to ascertain the values of the several common feed- 
ing stufls from their content of digestible protein, carbohydrates 
and ether extract. (420) This matter takes concrete form in the 
questions asked at farmers' meetings and in the agricultural 
palmers as to the relative values of different feeds; for example, 
the value of a ton of bran or oil meal when corn or oats are worth 
a certain sum per bushel. 

152. Studies of values. — More than a generation ago Wolff, 
studying the by-products of flouring mills and oil factories, 
based calculations on the current prices of these several feeds, and 
found that, allowing the nitrogen-free extract a value of 1, protein 
had a relative value of 2.4, and ether extract 3. 

Konig placed the ratio of protein, fat and nitrogen-free extract 
at 2.7 : 2.9 : 1. The German :N"atural History Society, ^ after 
investigating the matter, concluded that the average values of 
nutrients of the leading feeding stuffs of Germany were as 3 : 3 : 1 



^ Landw. Jahrb. 9, p. 805. 



118 



Feeds and Feeding. 



for protein, fat and nitrogen-free extract, respectively. Several 
American Stations liave also endeavored to ascertain the money 
value of concentrates according to the nutrients they contain, with 
the results presented in the table below: 

Valuations of nutrients in American concentrated feeding stuffs — 
various Experiment Stations. 





By 


Refer- 
ence. 


Value in cents per 
pound. 


Ratios. 


Station. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Ether 
ex- 
tract. 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Ether 
ex- 
tract. 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 


Conn.... 
Conn.... 

Del 

Ind ...... 

N.J 

Wis 

Vt 


Jenkins... 
Jenkins... 

Penny 

Huston ... 
Voorhees.. 

Woll 

H., B. & J 


Rept. 1888 
Rept. 1890 
Rept. 1889 

Bui. 37 

Rept. 1891 
Rept. 1891 
Rept. 1895 


1.60 
1.40 
1.23 
1.00 
0.91 
1.52 
2.02 


4.2 
2.9 
4.4.5 
2.75 
5.91 
3.58 
—.19 


0.96 
1.40 
0.52 
0.63 
1.12 
0.47 
0.91 


1.7 
1.0 
2.4 
1.6 
0.8 
3.2 
2.2 


4.4 
2.1 
8.6 
4.4 
5.3 
7.6 
—.21 


1 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1 
1 



The data in the above table were secured in the following 
manner: The market values of all the concentrated feeding stuffs 
in the state were tabulated, together with the pounds of digestible 
protein, carbohydrates and ether extract they contained. Then 
by a mathematical process the supposed relative value of each of 
the nutrients was determined, with results presented in the table. 
In Connecticut, for example, it was found that taking all the 
common concentrated feeding stuffs offered in tlic market at cur- 
rent values, each pound of digestible protein in these feeds cost 
on the average 1.6 cents, one pound of digestible fat 2.4 cents, 
and a pound of digestible carbohydrates .90 cents. Hills, Boyce 
and Jones, of the Vermont Station, calculating the commercial 
A'alues of concentrates for their state, found by the process usually 
employed that digestible fat had a value of — .19 cents, or that it 
was worth less than nothing, — an absurdity of course. Surprised 
at this, they investigated the subject in a broad manner and came 
to the conclusion that the method employed to determine these 
values is inaccurate and without merit. At present it is imjios- 
sible to state the value of one feeding stuff in terms of another 
from calculations based upon the nutrients contained in each. 



Part II. 



FEEDING STUFFS. 



CHAPTEE Vni. 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS, 



I. Indian Corn and its By-products. 



Digestible nutrients and ferti 


Uzing 


constituents. 








Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nvitrients 
in 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Average of all analyses 

Dent corn 


Lbs. 

89.1 
89.4 
88.7 
91.2 
89.3 
84.9 
90.9 
91.8 
89.6 
91.8 
94.3 
88.9 
91.9 
93.2 
34.6 


Lbs. 

7.9 

7.8 

8.0 

8.8 

0.4 

4.4 

7.4 

25.8 

9.0 

11.4 

20.7 

7.5 

30.3 

18.7 

5.5 


Lbs. 

66.7 
66.7 
66.2 
63.7 
52.5 
60.0 
59.8 
43.3 
61.2 
58.4 
38.8 
55.2 
35.3 
51.7 
21.7 


Lbs. 

4.3 
4.3 
4.3 
7.0 
0.3 
2.9 
4.6 

11.0 
6.2 
6.5 

12.4 
6.8 

14.5 
8.7 
2.3 


Lbs. 

18.2 
16.5 
16.8 
18.6 

5.0 
14.1 
16.3 
50.3 
26.5 
22.4 
49.8 
16.3 
57.7 
36.3 

9.8 


Lbs. 
7.0 


Lbs. 
4.0 


Flint corn 






Sweet corn 






Com cob 


.6 
5.7 
12.1 
3.3 
8.0 
7.0 
5.1 
9.8 


6 


Corn and cob meal 


4 7 


Com bran 


fi 8 


Gluten meal 


5 


Germ meal 


5 


Starch refuse 


5 9. 


Grano-gluten 


1 5 


Hominy chops 


4 9 


Glucose meal 




Sugar meal 


4.1 

1.0 


3 


Starch feed, wet 


1 







153. General characteristics. — Indian corn is the best relished 
grain available for our domestic animals, their fondness for it 
being remarkable. A possible explanation of this fact may lie 
in the large amount of oil which the corn grain carries; again, 
on mastication corn breaks into flinty, nutty particles, and is 



120 Feeds and Feeding. 

therefore more palatable than the wheat grain, for instance, which 
on crushing and mingling with saliva turns to a sticky dough. 

154. Races of corn. — The races of corn of interest to stockmen 
are embraced under the terms ^'Dent," ''Flint," and "Sweet." 
In dent corn the starchy material is floury in character, except a 
small portion near the exterior, which is corneous or flinty. In 
flint corn most of the starch has a corneous character, which 
is plainly revealed when the grain is cut across. Though different 
in appearance the corneous portion is chemically the same as the 
floury part. Dent and flint corns are practically of the same 
chemical composition. The flint varieties flourish along the 
northern rim of the corn belt with its cooler climate; dent corn 
flourishes where a higher temperature prevails. By planting one 
A^ariety or another, corn may be profitably grown in every state 
in the Union. It is said that flint corn when carried from its 
northern home to southern districts gradually changes to dent, 
while under reverse conditions dent varieties assume the char- 
acteristics of flint corn. 

It is often asserted that yellow corn is more nutritious than 
white, and sometimes the opposite is claimed. There is nothing 
in chemical analysis or experience to warrant either assumption. 
It is doubtless true that some varieties of one kind are superior 
to certain varieties of the other, but no uniform rule prevails. 

Sweet corn is characterized by hard, wrinkly grains, due to 
shrinkage in drying and their corneous character. The table 
shows that sweet com is somewhat riclicr in protein than corn of 
other races. It does not yield quite as much digestible carbohy- 
drates, the difference being more than made up, however, by the 
larger content of fat and protein. The grain of sweet corn con- 
tains considerable glucose while ripening, and this adds much to 
its palatability, though not necessarily to the nutritive ({ualities, 
since sugar has the same feeding value as starch. 

155. Corn a carbonaceous food. — The leading characteristic of 
the corn grain is the large proportion of starchy matter, coupled 
with the rather low j^rotein content and a low percentage of 
ash. Compared with wlieat, corn has somewhat less carbohy- 
drates, less protein, but more oil. Much of the oil and protein is 



Leading Cereals and their By-products. 121 

gathered in and about tlie corn germ lying at the base of the 
kernel. Eich in starch and oil, the function of corn is plainly 
to produce heat and fat when fed to farm animals. For fattening 
purposes no other grain equals corn. Lacking in protein and ash, 
this grain is not well suited for the production of bone and mus- 
cle in young and growing animals. See Chapter VI, also Arti- 
cle 421. 

156. Corn as human food. — Considering the nutrition it carries 
and the market price, corn is by far the cheapest food offered to 
mankind over a large part of the civilized world. That it has 
not been more generally used can be explained only in part. In 
the first place, corn meal cannot be made into a light, porous loaf, 
as can flour from the wheat grain. Again, when reduced to meal 
on grinding, the oil of the grain, and especially that in the germ, 
.soon becomes rancid, and the meal loses its palat ability. This 
trouble is remedied in part by processes of manufacture in which 
the germ is removed. 

157. Corn cob. — Corn cobs consist largely of crude fiber and 
consequently have a low feeding value. When corn has not 
fully ripened, more nutriment remains in the cob, which is then 
not so hard and woody. If deleterious fermentations have not 
occurred, such cobs are readily eaten by cattle. Cob goes well 
with the grain which produces it, and many cattle feeders are 
satisfied with this use of an otherwise waste product, drawing 
their conclusions from experience and observation. 

158. Corn and cob meal. — Sometimes corn together with the 
cob which bears it are crushed at the same operation, the 
resulting product being called "corn and cob meal." Great dif- 
ficulty is experienced in reducing the cob to reasonable fineness. 
If left coarse, farm animals usually push the pieces of cob aside 
and consume only the meal; if ground sufficiently fine, much 
lK)wer is required in the reduction. Difficulty is experienced in 
finding mills suitable for this purpose and in providing power 
sufficient for reducing the cobs. Eeasonably fine corn and cob 
meal has been found very satisfactory for stock feeding. Experi- 
ments by the Paris Omnibus Company i showed that corn and cob 

» Pott, P'Lihling's liandw. Zeitung, 189.3, p. 483. 



122 Feeds and Feeding. 

meal gave better returns tlian pure corn meal. Stockmen quite 
generally report favorably on its use. (539, 633, 849) Since the 
nutriment in the corn cob is not large, it is not easy to understand 
why this compound meets with general favor, especially since the 
cost of grinding is considerably increased. It has been suggested 
that pure corn meal lies heavy in the animal's stomach, and 
while in this condition is not so readily attacked by the juices of 
digestion. On the other hand, the particles of cob when asso- 
ciated with the meal cause the mass to lie loose in the stomach, 
in condition for easy digestive action. 

159. Weight of com and cob. — Aside from its water content, 
corn shows a very uniform composition for different regions of our 
country. While the moisture in old corn varies little from 12 
per cent., it may reach 20 and even 25 per cent, for ear corn 
freshly husked. Corn carrying as much as 20 per cent, water will 
not keep if stored in any considerable quantity. At the Kanstus 
Agricultural College, Shelton^ placed 200 pounds of ear corn, 
which had been ripe fully six weeks before it wiis husked, in a 
box which wa>s placed in a crib of corn with corn all about it. In 
July, eight months later, the corn weighed 187.5 pounds, showing 
a shrinkage of G per cent. 

At the Illinois Station, ^ Morrow reports three years' investi- 
gations as showing that 1,000 bushels of ear corn, medium 
varieties, shrunk 115 bushels, or 11.5 per cent., between the time 
of gathering and when thoroughly air-dry. Corn husked !N'oveni- 
ber 1 required 70 i)oimds of ears of early, 73 pounds of medium 
and 78 pounds of late maturing varieties to yield one bushel, or 
56 pounds of shelled corn. 

At the Kentucky Station, ^ Scovell found that corn placed in a 
loft IS^ovember 17, shrunk from 7.4 to 18.3 per cent, in weight. 

About one-fifth the weight of well-dried ear corn of the better 
varieties consists of cob; that is, 70 pounds of well-dried ear corn 
wUl yield 56 i)ounds of shelled corn. 

160. The pellagra corn disease. — Among the rural population 
of northern Italy there occurs a peculiar, fatal disease called 

1 Rept. Prof. Agr., 1884. 

2 Bui. 13. 

3 Rept. 1889. 



Leading Cereals and their By-products. 123 

''pellagra/' which lias been traced to the almost exclusive use of 
corn as food by the people. The poverty of the corn grain in 
protein and ash may explain in some measure this ailment. 
According to investigations, the disease is charged by some to the 
presence of mould fungi. Fua^ found aspergillus and penicillium 
fungi in corn meal which had caused pellagra, and was able to 
separate from it several poisonous substances, evidently decom- 
position products. 2 

161. Corn by-products. — The use of corn in the manufacture of 
starch, glucose, beer, spirits, etc., has grown enormously of late, 
resulting in great quantities of by-products of high feeding value 
for stock. In most of the processes of manufacture the first st<^p 
is to secure the starch of the corn grain as free as possible from 
the other constituents. The composition of the corn grain in its 
different parts and the various by-products left in the manufacture 
have been studied by Yoorhees at the New Jersey Station, ^ a 
summary of his findings being as follows: The husk or skin 
which covers the corn kernel coiLsists of two layers, which on 
removal constitute what is known as corn bran; this contains 
practically all the crude fiber of the corn grain. Below the husk 
or skin layer, but near the outside of the grain, comes a layer of 
cells rich in gluten or protein, yellow in color, and not readily 
separable from the remainder of the kernel. Most of the pro- 
tein of the corn grain lies in this layer. Near the base of the 
grain is the germ, which also contains gluten, and is particularly 
rich in oil and mineral matters. The body of the corn grain 
I)roper is composed almost entirely of starch, the cells being 
packed to repletion therewith. Voorhees separated 100 grams of 
corn kernels into skin, germ and starch portions, and analyzing 
these secured the results presented in the following table: 

1 Pott, Landw. Futterm., 1889, p. 410, foot note. 

* See also Konig, Die meusch. Nahr. u. Genussm., II, 1893, p. 474. 

3 Bui. 106. 



124 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Composition of the several parts of the com grain — New Jersey 

Station. 





In 100 
parts 
corn. 


Water. 


Composition of the water-free materiaU 


Corn and 
its parts. 


Nutrients. 


Fertilizing constit- 
uents. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 


Crude 
liber. 


Ether 
extract. 


Crude 
ash. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Original 

corn 

Skin 


Per 

cent. 

100.0 
5.6 
10.2 

84.3 


Per 

cent. 

24.7 
15.3 
29.6 

24.7 


Per 

cent. 

12.6 

6.6 

21.7 

12.2 


Per 

cent. 

79.3 
75.4 
45.8 

85.6 


Per 
cent. 

2.0 
16.5 
2.9 

0.7 


Per cent. 

4.3 

1.6 

29.6 

1.5 


Per 

cent. 

1.7 

1.3 

11.1 

0.7 


Per 

cent. 

2.0 
1.1 
8.5 

2.0 


Per 

cent. 

0.8 
0.2 
6.2 

0,4 


Per 

ct. 

0.5 
0.4 


Germ 

Starchy 
part 


2.9 
0.2 



162. What the table shows. — The germ, which constitutes only 
about 10 per cent, of the kernel, contains 65 per cent, of the 
ether extract, 61.5 per cent, of the mineral matter, 71 per cent, 
of the phosphoric acid, 60 per cent, of the potash and 16.3 per 
cent, of the nitrogen or protein of the whole grain. The starchy 
portion of the grain carries very little crude fiber or ash, but is 
rich in carbohydrates in the form of starch. The skin yields 
most of the crude fiber, the whole amount being small. 

163. Starch production. — Briefly described, starch is obtained 
from the corn grain in the following manner: The corn is gener- 
ally soaked until soft and then ground to meal in running water. 
The hulls or husks float to the surface and are removed; the 
germs sink to the bottom, and the water, carrying with it the 
gluten and starch, passes on through long troughs, in which the 
starch, being the heavier of the two, settles to the bottom while 
the gluten floats on. The various by-products thus separated are 
dried and sold, either separately or combined, under various 
names, while the resulting starch, freed from these substances, is 
treated in different ways for various manufactured i^roducts. 

164. Of what the by-products consist. — All the by-products 
combined constitute wliat is known as gluten feed, which is really 
the corn grain less the starch it carries. This feed is rich in 
ether extract and protein, and is well suited for dairy cows and 
ftittening stock. 



Leading Cereals and their By-xiroducis. 125 

Gluten meal does not contain either the hull or germ, and is 
very rich in ether extract and protein. Because of its concen- 
tration it should always be diluted or extended with some light 
material like wheat bran or corn bran. (546,637,850) Corn bran 
c-onsists of the hulls of the corn grain, and is relatively low in 
feeding value. Corn germ is very rich in protein and oil. Corn 
oil meal and corn oil cake consist of the pressed germs freed from 
most of the oil they carry, and are rich in ether extract ar^d pro- 
tein. These by-products should never be fed in large quantity, 
but mixed with other grain feeds. Often the by-products of the 
factory are disposed of in a wet condition, and are then styled 
"wet starch" or "wet glucose feeds." 

When corn is manufactured into hominy or other human food 
articles, the skin of the grain, the germ, etc., constitute by-prod- 
ucts more or less similar to those above described. Unfortunately 
for the purchaser there is no uniformity in the composition of 
these by-products, and they reach the trade under whatever 
names the manufacturers are pleased to place upon them, thus 
preventing any general treatment of the subject. 

165. Nitrogen and mineral matter in corn. — Compared with 
grains generally, corn is not rich in nitrogen and mineral matter. 
Compared even with hay from the leguminous plants, e. g., red 
clover hay, it likewise stands low. This poverty of mineral 
matter and nitrogen explains in some measure why the corn crop 
is not so exhausting to the soil as many others. The prudent 
feeder in using corn should always bear in mind its low nitrogen 
and mineral content, and make good what is lacking by supplying 
the wants of his animals from other sources. In choosing between 
corn and other feed, when purchasing in the market, he should 
bear in mind that a given weight of this grain does not bring to 
his farm as much fertility as do many other feeding stuffs. In 
gluten meal, grano-gluten and cream gluten, the nitrogen reaches 
a very respectable figure, though in mineral matter the standing 
is still low. 



126 



Feeds and Feeding. 



II. Wheat and its By-products in Milling. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Name of feed- 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 

liy- 
d rates. 



Etlier 
ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizina; constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Whent 

High-grade flour 

Low-grade flour 

Dark feeding flour 

Wheat brau 

Wheat bran, spring wheat 
Wheat bran, winter wheat 

Wlieat shorts 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat screenings 



Lbs. 

89.5 
87.6 
87.6 
90.3 

88.1 
88.5 
87.7 
88.2 
87.9 
88.4 



Lbs. 

10.2 

8.9 

8.2 

13.5 

12.2 

12!9 

12.3 

12.2 

12.8 

9.8 



Lbs. 

69.2 
62.4 
62.7 
61.3 
39.2 
40.1 
37.1 
50.0 
53.0 
51.0 



Lbs. 

1.7 

0.9 
0.9 
2.0 

3!4 
2.6 
3.8 
3.4 
o o 



Lbs. 

23.6 
18.9 
2S.9 
31.8 
26.7 



Lbs. 

7.9 
2.2 

s.'e 

21.4 

28.9 



Lbs. 

5.0 

1.5 

3.5 

10.9 

16.1 



28.2 
26.3 
24.4 



13.5 

9.5 

11.7 



5.9 
6.3 
8.4 



166. Wheat grain. — From tlie earliest times the wheat plant has 
furnished the choicest food grain for man. Wheat has in-obably 
never been degraded to stock-feeding purposes until the most 
recent times. During the last decade, owing to enormous pro- 
duction, the prices for this grain fell until they approached quite 
close to those received for corn. When this anomalous and dis- 
couraging situation was reached, our farmers at first hesitated, 
but with a sagacity most creditable to them quickly overcame 
their long-held and not unwarranted prejudice against this seem- 
ing perversion of nature and began to deal out wheat in large 
quantities to their stock. Coburni reports that in Kansas, during 
the year 1893, more than 4,000,000 bushels of wheat were fed to 
stock by the farmers of that state, and that in 1894 the amount 
so disposed of reached the enormous volume of 8,500,000 bushels. 
►Since it costs more to produce wheat than corn, it is reasonable 
to sujipose that this grain will never become a common feed for 
stock, but the feeder should know its value both absolute and 
relative, and hold himself ready to make use of it whenever 
market conditions warrant. 

Compared with corn, wheat carries a higher percentage of 
starch, less ether extract and more protein. Thus it more clearly 



1 Rept. Kan. St. Bd. Agr., Sept. 30, 1894. 



Leading Cereals and their Bij-producU. 127 

furnishes a balanced ration for farm animals. It follows tliat 
this grain meets the requirements of young and growing animals 
better than corn, a statement which is corroborated by the experi- 
ence of feeders. Because two or more kinds of feed should always 
be given rather than one only, the feeder should prize wheat 
highly for furnishing variety to his usually too short list of avail- 
able articles. It should also be remembered in considering prices 
that a bushel of wheat weighs seven per cent, more than a bushel 
of corn. 

167. Wheat for feeding. — Wheat maybe regarded as a satis- 
factory feed for all kinds of farm stock, in the hands of intelli- 
gent feeders. Mixed with corn, oats or bran it is superior to 
either alone for work horses. For fattening cattle and dairy cows 
it not only furnishes abundance of nutrients, but through variety 
gives edge to the appetite. When on a visit to WUliam Wat- 
son, the prince of American feeders, some years since, the writer 
found him feeding whole wheat of fine quality to sheep in prep- 
aration for a fat-stock show. For sheep this grain alone or mixed 
with others may be fed in the entire or whole condition; for 
other stock it should receive some form of preparation, either 
grinding, boiling or soaking. During mastication wheat and 
wheat flour adhere to the gums, forming a pasty mass. This can 
be prevented by mingling bran, corn meal or some such substance 
with the wheat or flour. Though a feed of great palatability and 
healthfulness, wheat does not equal corn for fattening purposes, 
yielding perhaps ten per cent, less returns. (462, 543, 638-9, 
759-60, 850) 

168. Character of flesh from wheat feeding. — Swift & Co. 
(Packers, Chicago j, replying to an inquiry concerning the char- 
acter of the flesh of wheat and corn-fed cattle and hogs, wrote :i 
''There is quite a i)erceptible difterence between wheat and corn- 
fed hogs and cattle. We do not consider that wheat-fed stock 
yields as well as corn-fed, there being less fat. The lean meat on 
wheat-fed cattle has a somewhat brighter red than on corn-fed 
cattle. The lean meat from m heat-fed hogs is very nice, but as 
the yield is not so good there is no particular advantage in it to 

* Prairie Farmer, Oct. 20, 1894. 



128 Feeds and Feeding. 

packers; but we consider wheat-fed stock wortli as much as 
corn-fed." 

169. Damaged wheat. — When low prices prevail for wheat, 
only the best grades should be sold by the farmer. Shrunken 
and damaged grain has almost no market value at such times, 
while for feeding purposes it may be nearly or quite equal to 
grain which commands the highest price. The farmer should 
carefully grade his grain at home and sell only the best. 

Sometimes the farmer with such wheat on hand hesitates about 
feeding it, fearing disastrous results. A number of inquiries as 
to the advisability of feeding poor wheat have come to the writer 
in past years, and he has always recommended that, instead of 
wasting such grain, it be fed in moderate quantities mixed with 
other materials. No ill results have ever come to notice from 
such grain when fed in reasonable quantity. (763-4) 

170. Composition of wheat grain. — If we examine the wheat grain 
we find, first of all, three membranous coats which have some- 
what the character of straw, and show on analysis about the same 
composition, with corresponding feeding value. Beneath these 
comes the fourth, called the ''aleurone layer," which is rich in 
protein, and which during the process of milling goes with the 
three outer layers to form bran. The embryo or germ of the 
grain is rich in oil, protein and mineral matter. The remaining 
portion of the grain consists of thin-walled cells, all packed to 
repletion with starch grains. Associated with the starch are 
grains of protein matter called gluten, which give to dough from 
wheat flour that tenacity which enables it to retain gas bubbles, 
l)roduced by yeast fermentation, during baking, thereby yielding 
a light, porous bread. In producing flour the aim of the miller is 
to secure all of the starch and gluten possible, avoiding the other 
constituents of the grain. He avoids incorporating the embryo 
or germ because, though rich in oil and protein, it turns dark on 
exposure to the air and gives the flour a specked appearance; 
further, the germ makes a sticky dough. Nor does the miller 
desire the aleurone layer, rich though it is in protein, for flour 
containing it has a brown tint. The amount of gluten in the 
wheat grain is smallest in the center and increases toward the 



Leading Cereals and their Bij-prodads. 129 

outside. Gluten being a desirable constituent of flour, the miller, 
for this reason and for greater yield, aims to secure all of the 
interior content of the grain possible, up to the aleurone layer 
itself. In modern milling the wheat grain is first broken into 
a few jiieces, and these are gradually reduced to flour by re- 
peated grinding and bolting. Bran, as we have seen, consists 
of the three outer coatings of the wheat grain and the aleurone 
layer, with some of the starchy particles adhering. Shorts 
consist of re-ground bran. Middlings contain the finer bran 
particles and more flour; often with this grade there are incorpo- 
rated the germs of the wheat grain. The better grades of mid- 
dlings are sometimes used for human food. 

In the manufacture of flour, from twenty-five to thirty-three 
per cent, of the weight of the wheat grain remains as offal avail- 
able for stock feeding. Since the consumption of wheat in this 
country is about 4.5 bushels, or 270 pounds, for each person, the 
by-products of this grain amount to nearly 70 pounds j^er capita, 
not including the enormous amount resulting from the wheat 
milled for export. 

171. Feeding bread. — An English writer ^ reports that a cab 
proprietor in London some years since tried the experiment of 
feeding bread to horses, with economy and success, the only ' 
trouble being that many loaves were consumed by the workmen. 
He further states that he has seen the coachmen of Paris feeding 
brown bread to their horses, and that this food is given to horses 
in countries where hay is dear. To prevent stealing, he recom- 
mends that straw be mixed with the dough before baking. 

172. Low-grade flour. — Our table shows the nutrients in low- 
grade flour to vary little from those in flour of the higher grade. 
Such flour can rarely be used with profit by the stockman so long 
as still lower grades of by-products are obtainable at the usual 
prices. Prof. Primrose McConnell, England, 2 reports having 
fed American low-grade flour for six months, and is "rather sur- 
prised at the beneficial results." 

173. Dark feeding flour. — The lowest grade of flour, known as 
"dark feeding flour," "red dog," etc., usually contains the 

1 The Field, England, July 15, 1893. 

2 Agricultural Gazette, 1893, p. 351. 



130 Feeds and Feeding. 

germs of the wheat grain, and because of this it is rich in protein 
and fat. Such flour has a high feeding value, especially for 
growing pigs, hard-worked horses and milch cows. Feeders 
should watch the markets for this brand, and may be able at 
times to use it to much profit. 

174. Middlings and shorts. — '^Middlings" and "shorts" are 
terms used interchangeably to some extent. It has become rather 
common of late to find shorts consisting simply of ground-over 
bran, almost free from floury particles, with the sweepings and 
dirt of the mill added. Such material is very unsatisfactory for 
stock feeding and should be avoided. 

Middlings are esi)ecially useful for feeding pigs and horses, 
since neither of these animals can utilize much crude fiber. For 
horses they should be mixed with corn meal, oats or other feed- 
ing stuffs, as pure middlings are a heavy feed and liable to ^vo- 
duce colic. For pigs, middlings mixed with corn meal or skim 
milk serve admirably in promoting growth and building healthy 
muscular bodies. (463, 641, 854) 

175. Bran. — "Wheat bran carries, as we have seen, a consider- 
able amount of crude fiber, somewhat resembling straw in this 
particular. It differs from straw in that the inner surface of the 
bran flakes is made up of the aleurone layer of the wheat grain, 
which is very rich in protein and in addition carries some starch. 
Understanding its character and composition, we are in position to 
make the best use of this abundant by-product in feeding farm 
stock. With some horsemen bran is fed only occasionally, being 
supplied once or twice a week in the form of a "mash," made 
by scalding with hot w^ater, in which case it is a mild laxative 
and very beneficial. Bran has, however, become a common feed 
in many well-managed stables. At the Stanford horse farm, a few 
years since, the writer found it being fed in moderate quantity 
to horses of all ages, from weanlings to stallions and brood 
mares. Bran is quite commonly used in feeding omnibus and cab 
horses. (451) Hard- worked horses, which have neither the time 
nor energy necessary to digest feeds with much bulk, should not 
receive much bran, owing to its coarse, fibrous character. Grow- 
ing horses, brood mares and stallions can be fed bran liberally 
with excellent results because of the large amount of mineral 



Leading Cereals and their Btj-products. 131 

matter and protein it contains, its volnme not working against it 
with these animals. In steer feeding bran serves admirably with 
corn in any form. Fed with this grain it gives bulk, supplies 
protein, and keeps the animal from cloying, as it may when long 
maintained on a single kind of feed, such as corn. The stockman 
feeding corn te his steers will find them making better gains and 
showing better condition by using bran for one-third of the con- 
centrates. The light character of the bran is well shown in cases 
of over-feeding. Though a horse or cow may be gorged with 
bran, it usually suffers no marked inconvenience therefrom, while 
an over-feed of corn or cotton-seed meal may produce fatal 
gastric disturbances. 

Bran is par excellence a leading feed for the dairy cow, furnish- 
ing not only bulk, a desirable quality in this case, but protein and 
ash matter, which are so much needed in the formation of milk. 
As a complementary food to corn meal, the combination of bran 
and that grain is not to be excelled. For young pigs bran is too 
coarse and straw-like, (896) and middlings should be substituted 
for it. For brood sows and older animals some bran may be fed 
with profit, and may prove very useful if the remainder of the 
ration is in concentrated form, for volume is necessary with the 
feed of such animals. This by-product is also very satisfactory 
in the sheep yard, being relished by fattening sheep, breeding 
ewes and growing lambs. (463, 544, 640-42, 762, 855) 

176. Fertilizing ingredients. — We learn from the table that the 
wheat grain is somewhat richer in nitrogen and mineral matter 
than corn. The by-products of wheat in milling are much richer 
in these particulars than the grain from which they are derived. 
High-grade flour is not rich in nitrogen or mineral matter. Low- 
grade flour is rich in nitrogen but low in mineral matter. Dark 
feeding flour is rich in nitrogen and mineral matter. Bran and 
shorts carry all the elements of fertility in large quantity, and for 
this reason are highly appreciated by those feeders whose interest 
reaches beyond their cattle to the lands they till. (414) When 
very low in price, bran may be used as a fertilizer by direct 
application to the land, but such perversion should not be toler- 
ated. It should be first fed to animals and, through their drop- 
pings, it will reaeh the land almost undiminished in fertility. 



132 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The great Northwest is now largely devoted to wheat growing. 
Here the farmers are gathering into the wheat grains the fertility 
which has been accumulating for ages. (4(4) Prudent farmers 
and stockmen further east, knowing of the fertilizing ingredients 
in the by-products of the flouring mills, are making large use 
of them, and by carefully saving the droppings from their cattle 
and applying them to the land, are transferring the great fertility 
of the Northwest to other districts. In this depletion of the soil 
of the Northwest by almost exclusive wheat growing, and in 
transferring the fertility taken up by this crop to other regions 
in the by-products of milling, we are experiencing one of the 
greatest economic changes ever witnessed in American agriculture. 

III. B,ye and its By-products. 

Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Rye 

Rye bran... 
Rye shorts. 



Lbs. 

88.4 
88.4 
90.7 



Lbs. 

9.9 
11.5 
11.9 



Lbs. 

67.6 
50.3 
45.1 



Lbs. 

1.1 
2.0 
1.6 



Lbs. 

17.6 
23.2 
18.4 



Lbs. 

8.2 
22.8 
12.6 



Lb-. 

5.4 

14.0 

8.1 



The table shows that rye does not differ materially from wheat 
in composition, nor are its by-products chemically dissimilar from 
those of the wheat grain. 

177. Rye and its by-products as stock feeds. — Work horses 
in Germany are fed rye to a limited extent,' each animal receiv- 
ing from two to four pounds of grain daily in addition to oats or 
other concentrated feed. 

According to Boggild, 2 rye imparts a characteristic flavor to 
milk and may cause bitter butter. The Scandinavian Preserving 
Company of Copenhagen, which preserves butter by sealing in 
air-tight cans for shipment to distant countries, prohibits the 
feeding of rye on the farms of its patrons. It is probable that 
the limited use of rye with dairy cows will prove satisfactory. 



» Pott, Futtorm., p. 395. 

2 Malkeribruget i Daniuark, 1st cd., p. 70. 



Leading Cereals and their By-produets. 



133 



Fjord's experiments witli pigs sTiow tliat rye has a feeding 
value about equal to barley, and that the quality of pork from, 
this grain is satisfactory. (891) Barley and rye were shown to 
be superior to rye shorts. (895) The pork from rye shorts was 
of an inferior quality, showing more shrinkage and being softer 
than that from rye and barley mixed. (466) 

The use of rye and its by-products in this country is quite lim- 
ited, and in consequence there is little data concerning this grain 
for feeding purposes. Since it is used quite extensively for human 
food, we may suppose that rye is not inimical to animal life, and 
tliat under proper limitations it will prove satisfactory with farm 
stock. It has been charged that since ergot, a fungus having 
medicinal effects, grows on rye heads, rye may therefore prove 
dangerous to farm animals and may even cause abortion. This 
charge seems unreasonable when we reflect upon the common use 
of this grain for human food in European countries. (283) 

IV. Barley and its By-products in Brewing. 

Digestible nutrients and fertilising constituents. 

Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


89.1 


8.7 


65.6 


1.6 


89.8 


18.6 


37.1 


1.7 


24.3 


3.9 


9.3 


1.4 


91.8 


15.7 


36.3 


5.1 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Barley 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, wet.. 
Brewers' grains, dried 



Lbs. 

15.1 

35.5 

8.9 

36.2 



Lbs. 

7.9 
14.3 

3.1 
10.3 



Lba. 

4.8 

16.3 

0.5 

0.9 



178. Characteristics. — Barley is one of the most widely culti- 
vated cereals, growing as far north as 70 degrees latitude in Lap- 
land near North Cape, while in this country it is found in Arizona 
and California flourishing beside groves of the lemon and orange. 
This grain, which was probably the chief bread plant with manj 
ancient nations, is now devoted almost wholly to brewing and 
stock feeding. ^ The use of barley as a feed for animals is still 

1 For a history of the barley plant and many other interesting facts ia 
relation thereto, see Brewer's Special Report on the Cereals, 10th U. 8. 
Census. 



134 Feeds and Feeding. 

oonfined almost wliolly to tlie Pacific slope, wliere corn and oatvS 
do not flourisli in equal degree. The use of barley, most certainly 
its lower grades, will become more common with our stockmen 
when its value and special advantages are better known. The 
table shows that digestible protein is higher in barley than in oats, 
and considerably higher than in corn. The carbohydrates in this 
grain exceed those in oats and fall below those in corn. Barley 
has less oil than oats or corn. 

Eichardson ^ finds that barley from Dakota contains the largest 
percentage of protein, while that from Oregon shows lowest. 
In these particulars the record resembles that of wheat from 
the same regions. According to the same author the hull of the 
barley grain averages 15.22 per cent, of its total weight. There 
are varieties of barley without beards and still others without 
hulls, both grown to a limited extent in this country. Brewer 
found a hull-less barley grown by the Pueblo Indians at Taos, 
N. M., for bread making, which was very nutritious, carrying a 
higher per cent, of protein than wheat. Cooke, of the Colorado 
Station, 2 reports that hull -less barley yields profitable crops of 
grain in the mountain parks of that state at an elevation of 7,000 
feet. At higher altitudes it is cut for hay, yielding a roughage 
containing sufiicient nutriment to alone nourish hard-worked 
horses. In feeding trials with pigs, hull -less barley gave better 
returns than common barley or corn.. The Arabs maintained 
their horses almost exclusively on barley, the grain being admin- 
istered unground. This grain is fed to the horse with excellent 
results by the Berbers in northern Africa. •' Pott * regards barley 
as the best cereal for the horse, oats only excepted. 

Barley is a common feed for dairy cows in north Eurojjc. The 
Danes sow barley and oats together in the proportion of one part 
of barley seed to two of oats. The mixed grain from this crop is 
ground previol^s to feeding, and is regarded as the best for dairy 
cows and other stock. Pott states that barley is beneficial in its 
influence on the quality of milk and butter. This grain is 

» Bui. 9, Div. of Chem., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1886. 

2 Bui. 40. 

3 Expt. Sta. Record, V, p. 626. 
■• Laiidw. Futtenii., p. o99. 



Leading Cereals and their Bij-producis. 135 

extensively used in England and northern EuroiDC for pork pro- 
duction, and may be regarded as standing at the head of all grains 
for producing flesh of fine quality both as to hardness and flavor. 
(894) Strangely, there is a rather widespread shade of i)rejudice 
existing against the use of barley for stock feeding in this country, 
some even asserting that it is poisonous to farm stock. Perhaps 
the brewers, wishing to control the entire use of this crop, have 
furthered the prejudice. This charge should be dismissed as 
unworthy of intelligent farmers, for the experience of the old 
world is entirely against it. Barley often commands a low price 
because the grains have been tarnished during harvest by rain- 
fall or foggy weather. Such grain has lost little or none of its 
nutrients, though for the brewer its value may have been much 
diminished. The wise stockman will use such barley for feed 
rather than force it on the market at the low price which it com- 
mands. (460, 857, 891) 

179. Malting. — To appreciate the value of barley by-products 
we should understand their origin. In malting, the grain is first 
steeped in wooden or stone cisterns, where it remains until 
sufficiently soft to be easily crushed between the thumb and 
finger without yielding a milky juice. The grains are next 
spread upon a frame in a mass about twenty inches deep. Here 
the temperature rises to about 150 degrees, and the grains begin 
to germinate, sending out tiny sprouts. In the third step the 
sprouting barley is spread upon the floor for the pui-pose of con- 
trolling the germination, increasing or retarding it according to 
circumstances. 

These three steps are all for the single purpose of converting 
the starchy matter of the grain into soluble dextrin and sugar, 
which is accomplished by a natural ferment in the grain, called 
diastase. All of the substance of the barley grain which goes 
into the sprouts is waste to the malster, and yet he cannot pro- 
duce malt without sprouting the grain; hence the close watching 
and sudden checking of growth when that ijoint is reached. In 
the fourth stage the grains are kiln-dried, destroying the sprouts, 
which are next separated from the grain by sieves, leaving the 
dried barley grains with their load of soluble constituents. Such 



13G Feeds and Feeding. 

grain when dried is known as malt, and the dried germs are 
termed malt sprouts. 

ISO. Brewers' grains. — In the manufacture of beer the brewer 
extracts from the malt the soluble dextrin and sugar. The liquor 
containing this is called wort, which uj)on proper fermentation 
and further treatment constitutes beer. The malt grains, freed 
from the dextrin and sugar, while in wet form are known as wet 
brewers' grains, a by-product of great volume at all breweries. 
It is evident from this presentation that the brewer who uses only 
the starch of the barley grain does not care for varieties of grain 
rich in protein, but rather the contrary. According to Eichard- 
son, Miircker found that a first-class malting barley should not 
carry over 8.67 per cent, protein, which is about two-thirds that 
found in American grains. The requirements of the stockman 
who seeks feeds rich in j>rotein are in the opposite direction, so 
that the poorest barley for maltiug may be the best for feeding. 
Light- colored, bright barley makes beer of better color than dark, 
weather-stained grains; hence the lower price paid by the malster 
for weather-stained l)arley. 

181. Malt for stock. — Lawes and Gilbert, ^ after experimenting 
with malt, conclude: ''A given weight of barley is more pro- 
ductive both of the milk of cows and of the increase in live weight 
of fattening animals than the amount of malt and malt dust 

(malt sprouts) that would be produced from it 

Irrespective of economy, malt is undoubtedly a very good food 
for stock; and common experience seems to show that a certain 
amount of it is beneficial when given in admixture, and in change, 
with other food to young or weakly animals, or in making up for 
exhibition or sale; that is, when the object is to produce a par- 
ticular result irrespective of the economy required in ordinaiy 
feeding. ' ' 

Occasionally malt slightly injured by fire or other cause is offered 
for sale at a low price, and, knowing its value, the opportunity 
for purchase and feeding at a j)rotit shonld not be lost by the 
watchful stockman. 2 



1 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. 4. 
^ See Jour. Hoy. Agr. Soc, 1892. 



Leading Cereals and their By-products. 137 

182. Wet brewers' grains. — These grains can only be fed in the 
vicinity of the breweiy, owing to the large amount of water they 
carry. This fact has led to the extensive feeding of dairy cows 
in the proximity of breweries, which are generally located where 
there is a large demand for milk. Because a certain kind of city 
milk supply is often in the hands of ignorant people and is not 
properly supervised by officials, the cows in some instances are 
crowded into dark sheds where the air is foul and the animals 
enjoy little or no exercise or sunshine. Because the wet grains 
are low priced and easily procured, the cows are wholly or almost 
entirely maintained uj)on them. The drippings from the wet 
grains pass downward through the feed boxes and under the 
floors of the stable, where fermentation takes place, giving rise to 
bad odors. Often, too, the grains accumulate in the stable and 
are not fed until they have become putrid. In view of all these 
circumstances, it is not surprising that boards of health have 
sometimes reached the conclusion that wet brewers' grains are not 
a suitable feed for dairy cows under any circumstances, and have 
prohibited the sale of milk from cows fed upon them. 

There is nothing whatever in wet brewers' grains which is 
poisonous or deleterious in milk production, provided they are 
properlj'- fed while fresh. The trouble arises from the great 
abuse of a most excellent feeding material which is of such char- 
acter that it can easily be abused. Supplied in reasonable 
quantity while fresh, and fed in water-tight boxes which are 
kept clean, with nutritious hay and other coarse provender, 
there is no better feed for dairy cows. So great and so frequent, 
however, are the dangers from their abuse, that wet brewers' 
grains should never be used for cows yielding milk for city 
supply unless they are fed under the strict supervision of com- 
petent officials. If this cannot be done, then perhaps it is best to 
prohibit their use altogether. 

(83. Dried brewers' grains. — By removing the excessive moist- 
ure of the wet grains through drying, a product is obtained 
which is concentrated and no more perishable than bran. Dried 
brewers' grains are rich in jDrotein, low in carbohydrates and rich 
in ether extract. They are most excellent feed for dairy cows, 



138 Feeds and Feeding. 

ranking with bran and oil meal in palatability and general good 
effects. 

Sattig 1 reports using dried brewers' grains and finding them a 
cheap winter feed for horses, the energy and general condition of 
the animals being pronounced as good as though they were main- 
tained on oats. Trials in feeding the dried grains to streetcar 
horses by the New Jersey Station gave satisfactory results, with 
the cost of the ration reduced several cents per day. (461, 475) 

184. Malt sprouts. — The tiny sprouts originating from the 
barley grain in the process of malting are separated from the 
grains after they have dried, by sieving. Minute as are these 
sprouts, they accumulate in large quantities, and malsters can fur- 
nish them by the car-load or train-load. The table shows that malt 
sprouts carry nearly twenty per cent, of digestible protein, with 
the carbohydrates and fat running low. Unfortunately this feed 
is not much relished by cattle, and for this reason can only be fed 
in limited quantity. Malt sprouts absorb a large quantity of 
water and should be soaked for several hours before feeding. 
Two or three pounds of sprouts can be profitably fed to dairy cows 
daily, because of their low cost and the high fertility they carry. 
(473) 

185, Fertilizing constituents. — The barley grain itself does not 
differ materially from the other cereals in fertilizing components. 
Malt sprouts are rich in phosphoric acid and potash. In some 
cases sprouts are directly applied to the land as a fertilizer, but if 
of good quality, their feeding value should not thus be lost. Often 
they can be purchased at a lower price than the commercial value 
of the fertility they contain, so that they cost nothing as feed if 
the droppings of the cattle receiving them are carefully saved. 
Brewers' grains are rich in nitrogen and phosphates, but very lovr 
in potash. 



IMilcli Z:'ituno-, 1886, p. 185, 



Leading Cereals and their By-products. 139 

V. Oats and their By-products. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Oats 


Lbs. 

89.0 
92.1 
92.3 
93.5 
90.6 


Lbs. 

9.2 

11.5 

12.5 

8.9 

1.3 


Lbs. 

47.3 
52.1 

46.9 
38.4 
40.1 


Lbs. 

4.2 
5.9 
2.8 
5.1 
0.6 


Lbs. 

20.6 
23.5 
17.2 
21.6 
5.2 


Lbs. 

8.2 


Lbs. 
6 '^ 


Oat meal 




Oat feed or shorts 


9.1 


5 3 


Oat dust 




Oat hulls 


2.4 


5 '>, 







186. Concerning the oat grain. — The oat crop ranks third in 
importance among cereals in the United States. Owing to the 
uncertainty of wheat as to yield, and its falling price during recent 
yearSj the oat crop has been in the ascendency and has greatly 
increased. Though primarily used as feed for animals, the oat 
grain now holds a prominent place among nutrients for man in both 
Europe and America. No grain varies so widely in weight per 
bushel as oats. In the southern portion of our country a bushel of 
oats often weighs only twenty pounds, while on the Pacific coast 
the Siime volume may weigh fifty pounds. Southern oat grains 
have an inflated husk and bear an awn or beard which causes 
the grains to lie loose in the measure. The kernel is larger 
than that of the Northern grain. At the North the oat grain is 
encased in a compact hull, which is not often awned. According 
to Richardson, ^ the hulls of oats are from twenty-four to forty- 
five per cent, of the weight of the grain, the average being about 
thirty per cent. Eichardson states: ''The proi^ortion of husk to 
kernel and the compactness of the grain prove to be the all-impor- 
tant factors, and the weight per bushel the best means of judging 
the value of the grain." 

At the Ohio Station, 2 Hickman, studying the question whether 
the weight per bushel for oats indicated the net amount of kernels, 
secured these results: 



1 Bui. 9, Div. of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington. 
* Bui. 57. 



140 Feeds and Feeding. 



Number of varieties in test. 
4 


Weight of grain 

per bushel. 

36 lbs. 


Per cent. 

kernel. 

68 


3 


34 lbs. 


67 


7 


30 lbs. 


69 



Here we observe tliat the lightest oats yielded the highest per- 
centage weight of kernels to hull. This test points to the conclu- 
sion that light oats are not necessarily low in actual nutriment, 
and is contrary to the teaching of Eichardson. 

The oat grain shows a higher proportion of digestible protein 
than corn or wheat, while in ether extract it exceeds wheat and 
nearly equals corn. "With a lower carbohydrate content, the 
nutritive ratio is such that this grain contains within itself quite 
a well balanced ration for farm animals. 

A hull-less variety of oats is occasionally grown in this country. 
For poultry and swine it serves a useful purpose, but for other 
farm stock, varieties of oats with hulls are preferable. 

187. New oats unfit for feeding. — Storer ^ treats of this question 
in the following words: ''As all horse keepers know, new oats 
are unfit to be given to working horses. They loosen the bowels 
of the animals, make their flesh watery, or 'soften them down,' 
as the term is; i. e., they render animals apt to sm eat easily, and, in 
general, put them ' out of condition.' How or why the new oats 
produce these effects is not known; but in the course of a few 
months after harvest, and especially after cold weather has set in, 
the oats undergo a change of some kind, either of after-ripening 
or of fermentation, and are thereafter fit to be fed to horses. 
Probably this difference between new and old oats depends upon 
a change in the chemical composition of some one peculiar, and, 
so to say, medicinal constituent of the oat grain." 

188. A stimulating principle in oats. — The mettle shown by the 
horse nurtured on oats has led to the supposition that this grain 
contains a stimulating principle. In 1885 Norton separated an 
albuminoid from the oat grain which Johnston named "avenine." 
Later work of the chemists effectually did away with Johnston's 
albuminoid, and it was left to Sanson '• to announce the discovery 

1 Agriculture in Some of Its Relations with Chemistry, Vol. II. 

2 Comptes Jleiulus 96, I, p. 75; IJiederm. Centralbl., 1884, p. 20. 



Leading Cereals and their By-prodrnds. 141 

of a stimulating principle in the seed coats of the oat grain. This 
was supposed to be an alkaloid, varying in quantity in different 
varieties of oats and also with soil, climate, etc. Sanson concludes 
that one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of oats will generally contain suf- 
ficient avenine to exert a stimulating influence on the motor nerves 
of the horse for an hour. He claims that grinding and crushing 
the oats destroys or weakens the principle, for which reason 
ground oats are not as effective as whole oats. Careful investiga- 
tions by later chemists have failed to discover any characteristic 
alkaloid, or in fact any nitrogenous compound of indicated char- 
acter. ^ Thus we are left in uncertainty as to any stimulating 
principle in oats. Whether found or not, all horsemen will still 
unite in holding this grain without a peer for nurturing their 
favorite animals. (456-9, 463, 465) 

Oats are usually administered to horses unground, grinding 
being necessary only for animals whose mastication is imperfect, 
and for foals. For dairy cows there is no better grain than oats, 
but the use of oats in the dairy is often restricted by their price. 
(642) In Denmark oats are frequently used by dairymen, who 
sow this grain with barley, feeding the two in combination. (178) 
For very young pigs oats should be ground and the hulls sieved 
out because they are too woody. For pigs more or less mature, 
and for breeding stock especially, some oats, ground or unground, 
are always in place. (858) 

189. By-products. — In the preparation of oat meal for human 
food several by-products result. Oat hulls are of low value, as 
the table shows, being worth little more than the same weight of 
wheat- or oat- chaff. Their value may be materially greater if 
broken kernels are found with them. Oat hulls being produced 
in large quantities at the oatmeal mills and having a low feeding 
value, are used by unscrupulous feed dealers for mixing with 
corn meal and other feeding stuffs, the mixture being represented 
to prospective purchasers as containing ground oats, in evidence 
of which are the numerous hulls. In purchasing ground feeds, 
where an admixture of oats is claimed, it is always well to 

1 Ldw. Vers. Stji. 36, p. 299; Kept. Conn. Sta. 1891, p. 124; Kept. Me. 
Expt. Sta. 1891, p. 58, corr. 



142 Feeds mid Feeding. 

remember this possible soiu^ce of fraud and inspect the feed to 
ascertain if the oat kernels are present in proper proportion with 
the hulls. 

In preparing oatmeal, after the grains are hulled the kernels 
are freed from the pencil of minute hairs found at one end. These 
liairs, small as they are, accumulate in quantity and form the basis 
of "oat-dust feed." As shown by the table, oat dust has a fair 
feeding value, and is useful, provided broken oat kernels are pres- 
ent and the mass does not contain too much of the sweepings 
from the mill. ''Oat feed" or "oat shorts" are terms which 
characterize by-i^roducts of variable composition; they may 
have a high feeding value, as shown by the table. (859) Those 
in position to secure products from oatmeal factories will, by 
studying the subject and watching for opportunities, often be 
able to secure feeding stuffs of high value at relatively low prices. 



CHAPTER IX. 

MINOR CEREALS, OIL-BEARING AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS AND 
THEIR BY-PRODUCTS. 

I. Rice and its By-products. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 

plioric 

acid. 


Pot^ 
ash. 


Rice 


Lbs. 

87.6 
91.8 
90.3 
90.0 


Lbs. 

4.8 
1.6 
5.3 
9.0 


Lbs. 

72.2 
44.5 
45.1 
56.4 


Lbs. 

0.3 
0.6 
7.3 
6.5 


Lbs. 

10.8 
5.8 
7.1 

19.7 


Lbs. 

1.8 

1.7 

2.9 

26.7 


Lbs. 
0.9 


nice hulls 


\A 


Rice bran 


? 'I 


Ric-e polish 


7 1 







190. Parts of the rice grain. — The rice grain is not directly used 
for stock feeding, but its by-products from the mills in the South 
lire available in considerable quantity for that purpose. Accord- 
ing to Ross, 1 the products from 162 pounds of rough rice are as 

follows: 

95 pounds clean rice, all grades. 
8 pounds polish. 
30 pounds bran. 
29 pounds chaff, straw, trash, dust, etc. 

191. By-products of rice. — Rice hulls are so woody that they are 
not useful for feeding jjurposes except in periods of great scarcity 
of coarse provender. Rice bran, composed of the outside of the 
rice grain and more or less of the germ, is of moderate feeding 
value for dairy cows and pigs. Rice polish, a dust-like powder, 
is rich in nutritive elements, and very valuable for feeding cows, 
pigs, etc. It is rich in both nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and 
hence a valuable manure results from using this feed. Accord- 



1 Bui. 24, La. Expt. Sta. 



144 



Feeds and Feediny. 



ing to Pott, 1 rice meal is an excellent feed for milk production. 
]!^ine pounds per day liave been fed to cows with no unfavorable 
results. Eancid rice meal lias a bad influence on milk and but- 
ter and is apt to disturb the digestion of the cow. (864) 

Eice and its by-products are low in fertilizing ingredients with 
the exception of rice polish, which is quite rich in nitrogen and 
phosphoric acid. 

II. Buckicheat and its By-products. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ether 
ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Buckwheat 


Lbs. 

87.4 
86.8 
89.5 
88.9 
87.3 


Lbs. 

7.7 

2.1 

7.4 

21.1 

22.0 


Lbs. 

49.2 
27.9 
30.4 
33.5 
33.4 


Lbs. 

1.8 
0.6 
1.9 
5.5 
5.4 


Lbs. 

14.4 

4.9 

36.4 


Lbs. 

4.4 
0.7 

17.8 


Lbi.. 
2 1 


Buckwheat hulls 


5 2 


Buckwheat bran 


12*8 


Buckwheat shorts 




Buckwheat middlings 


42.8 


21.9 


11.4 



192. Concerning the buckwheat grain. — The grain of the buck- 
wheat plant, rarely used as stock feed, has a fair feeding value, 
its nutrients running somewhat lower than the leading cereals. In 
certain districts large quantities of buckwheat by-products are 
available to the stockman, who, understanding their nature and 
composition, may avail himself of an excellent feed at com- 
paratively low cost. The black, woody hulls of the buckwheat 
grain have little feeding value, and should be used only when 
coarse feeds are scarce and high priced, in which case they 
may serve to give bulk to the feed of animals that otherwise 
might starve. On the other hand, that portion of the buckwheat 
grain immediately inside the hull which forms the middlings, is 
rich in protein and ether extract, and has a high feeding value. 
The miller, aiming to sell as much of the hulls as possible, mixes 
them with the middlings, designating this compound ''buck- 
wheat bran." (862) The intelligent purchaser, knowing that the 
hulls are practically worthless, will avoid them and buy only the 

1 Futtermittel, p. 551. 



Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 145 

floury middlings. Buckwheat bran and middlings are nearly 
always used for cow-feeding, having the reputation of producing 
a large flow of milk. It has been charged that buckwheat by- 
products make a white, tallowy butter and pork of a low quality. 
These charges are probably without foundation, i when the feeds 
are not given in excess. 

The feeder may make liberal use of the floury portions of the 
buckwheat grain, well assured that they are valuable, and that 
usually they are an economical feed. 

193. Fertilizing constituents. — Buckwheat middlings are rich 
in fertility, especially in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and this 
fact should enhance their value in the estimation of the farmer- 
stockman. 

m. Sorghum and Millet Seed. 

Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ether 
ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Sorghum seed 


Lbs. 

87.2 
85.9 
84.8 
86.0 


Lbs. 

7.0 
7.4 

7.8 
8.9 


Lbs. 

52.1 

48.3 
57.1 
45.0 


Lbs. 

3.1 
2.9 
2.7 
3.2 


Lbs. 

14.8 
16.3 


Lbs. 
8.1 


Lbs. 

4 '>< 


Broom-com seed 




KafRr corn 






Millet 


20.4 


8.5 


3 6 







194. Concerning sorghum. — According to Collier, 2 nine-tenths 
of the natives of India subsist upon the grain of the sorghum 
plant. Sorghum and millet are the common cereal plants of much 
of China and Turkestan. Sorghum seed is extensively used for 
human food in Africa and to some extent in the West Indies. 

The sorghums may be divided into two races: saccharine and 
non-saccharine. In the latter the plant-stems are pithy and 
carry little or no sugar, the nutritive substance being mostly 
deposited in the numerous seeds of the ample seed-head crowning 
the plant. The stems of saccharine sorghums contain much 



1 Rept. Ottawa, Canada, Expt. Farms, 1895. 

2 Sorghum, Its Culture and Uses: An address before the Chamber of 
Commerce, New York, 1885. 

10 



146 



Feeds and Feeding. 



sugar, designed primarily for conversion into starch in the seed- 
grains. In recent years the sorghums, especially the non- sac- 
charine varieties, have come rapidly into favor in the semi-arid 
districts of the Western United States, ranging from Northwestern 
Texas across the Indian Territory and Kansas, into Nebraska and 
South Dakota. The sorghums which flourish in this region are 
known as Kaffir, Egyptian and Jerusalem corn. According to 
Coburn, ^ Kansas grew 215,000 acres of Kaffir and Jerusalem corn 
in 1895. (274) 

195. Yields of sorghum. — Burtis^ reports the following com- 
parative yields of Kaffir and Indian corn at the Kansas Agricult- 
ural College: 

Yield of Kaffir and Indian corn — Kansas Agricultural College. 





Red Kaffir corn. 


Indian corn. 


Year. 


Grain per 

acre, 
bushels. 


Stover 

per acre, 

tons. 


Grain 
per acre, 
bushels. 


Stover 

per acre, 

tons. 


1889 


71.0 
19.0 
98.0 
50.0 
49.0 


9.0 
4.2 
6.0 
5.0 
5.3 
2 
1.5 


56.0 
22.0 
74.0 
30.0 
30.0 


2.5 


1890 


2.5 


1891 


3.0 


1892 


4.6 


1893 


1.8 


1894 


1.0 


1895 


43.1 


22.8 


1.6 






Average 


55.0 


4.7 


39.1 


2.4 







By the table we learn that at Manhattan, which is in the corn 
belt of Kansas, Kaffir corn leads the great American cereal in 
yield. 

The seed is sown either broadcast, in which case it is devoted 
to forage, or in drills, when it is cultivated like Indian corn. The 
seed of Kaffir corn weighs from fifty-six to sixty pounds to the 
bushel. Since this grain is used by millions of human beings for 
food, we can readily believe it valuable for feeding farm stock. 
Enthusiasts declare it fully equal to Indian corn for stock feeding, 
but this statement seems overdrawn. Probably Kaffir corn ranks 



iRept. Kan. St. Bd. Agr., Dee. 1895. 
* Q,r. Rept. Kau. lid. Agr., Mar. 1896. 



Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 147 

a little below barley in feeding value. Sorglium culture is partic- 
ularly recommended in warm districts where Indian corn may 
fall short of giving fair returns for lack of sufficient moisture in 
the soil, and where hot, drying winds are common. In the corn 
districts proper, useful as the sorghums are, they will never seri- 
ously rival Indian corn. (547-8, 861) 

196. Broom-corn seed. — In districts where broom corn is grown, 
large quantities of the seed are annually wasted through ignorance 
and carelessness of the growers. Broom-corn heads are cut before 
the seed has fully matured, and as the latter is usually removed 
before it has had time to become thoroughly dry, it easily ferments 
when left in heaps, and is wasted. With a little care in drying 
the seed may be saved as is other grain, or it may be kept as silage, 
either in a regular silo or simply covered with earth, as was shown 
to be practicable by Miles ^ years ago. Broom-corn seed will 
prove satisfactory for feeding cattle if used in reasonable quantity. 

197. The saccharine sorghums. — At the Wisconsin University ^ 
the writer, experimenting with sorghum for the manufacture of 
sugar, secured seed as a by-product at the rate of from twenty-seven 
to thirty-two bushels per acre; this seed weighed fifty-one pounds 
per bushel. 

At the N'ew Jersey Station, Cook ^ secured seed at the rate of 
1,300 pounds per acre from sorghum cane grown for syrup. 

Concerning the statement that sorghum seed contains tannin, a 
bitter principle which renders the seed unfit for feeding stock, 
Wiley writes: * ''A careful examination of sorghum seed has 
failed to discover the presence' of tannin, and the only possible 
injurious principle which it can contain is the coloring matter of 
the glumes. ' ' ( 643 ) 

198. Millet. — Millet is grown in South Europe, parts of Asia 
and in Africa for human as well as for animal food. At the Mas- 
sachusetts (Hatch) Station, 5 Brooks grew 37.2 bushels of millet 
seed, weighing forty-seven pounds per bushel, on a half acre of 
land. Different varieties yielded as follows: ^ Panicum ital- 

1 Country Gentleman, March 23, 1876. 

2 Rept. on Amber Cane and the Ensilage of Fodders, 1881. 

3 liept. 1885, 

* Rept. U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1889. 
6 Bui. 18. « Rept. 1892. 



148 



Feeds and Feeding. 



icum, 55 busliels; Panicum crus galli, 69 bushels, and Panicum 
miliaceum, 28 bushels per acre. Brooks concludes that millet 
cannot successfully compete with Indian corn under conditions 
prevailing in Massachusetts. Millet seed resembles oats in com- 
position, but we cannot point to experiments which definitely settle 
the feeding value of the several varieties. 

Stewart 1 writes: "Millet meal is a highly appropriate food 
for young or mature horses. It has a higher proportion of albu- 
minoids and a higher nutritive ratio than oats, but having less 
oil. It is found, when well ground (and it cannot properly be 
fed without grinding), to be one of the best rations for horses, 
being particularly adapted to the development of muscular 
strength." 

The culture of sorghums and millets for grain and forage is to 
be recommended for the warmer districts of the United States, 
where there is scant rainfall and where hot, drying winds prevail. 
Where Indian corn flourishes, these crops are not able to compete 
with that great cereal. (272) 

rV. Oil-hearing Seeds and their By-products. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Phos- 
^^^- acid. 



Nitro- 



Pot- 
ash. 



Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process. 
Linseed meal, new process 

Cottonseed 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Cocoanut meal 

Palmnutmeal 

Sunflower seed 

Sunflower cakes 

Peanut meal 

Rape-seed meal 



Lbs. 

90.8 
90.8 
89.9 
89.7 
91.8 
88.9 
89.7 
89.6 
92.5 
91.8 
89.3 
90.0 



Lbs. Lbs. Lbs, 



20.6 
29.3 
28.2 
12.5 
37.2 
0.3 
15.6 
16.0 
12.1 
31.2 
42.9 
25.2 



17.1 

32.7 
40.1 
30.0 
16.9 
33.1 
38.3 
52.6 
20.8 
19.6 
22.8 
23.7 



29.0 

7.0 

2.8 

17.3 

12.2 

1.7 

10.5 

9.0 

29.0 

12.8 

6.9 

7.5 



Lbs. 

36.1 
54.3 
57.8 
31.3 
67.9 
6.9 
32.8 
26.9 
22.8 
55.5 
75.6 
49.6 



Lbs. 

13.9 
16.6 
18.3 
12.7 
28.8 
2.5 
16.0 
11.0 
12.2 
21.5 
13.1 
20.0 



Lbs. 

10.3 

13.7 

13.9 

11.7 

8.7 

10.2 

24.0 

5.0 

5.6 

11.7 

15.0 

13.0 



199. Concerning oil-bearing seeds. — The leading oil-bearing 
seeds in this country are from the flax and cotton plants. Others 



^ Feeding Animals, 



Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 149 

of mncli importance in foreign countries are little known here. 
Flax grain carries a considerable quantity of protein with an 
excess of oil. There is no starch in well-matured flax seeds. On 
account of the high commercial value of the oil, flax seed is rarely 
used as a feed. 

At the Iowa Station, ^ Wilson fed ground flax seed with skim 
milk to calves with excellent results. (519) When flax seed was 
fed to cows at the rate of eight pounds per head daily, no ill 
results followed such heavy feeding. Some feeders claim that 
flax seed should only be fed in a very limited quantity, since it 
contains a cathartic principle. 

200. Oil cake and oil meal. — At the oil mills, after crushing the 
seeds, the oil is removed by one of two processes. In the first the 
crushed seed is heated and placed between cloths or in sacks which 
are piled one on another and the mass subjected to hydraulic pres- 
sure, to extract the oil. The residue after pressure, stripped of the 
wrappings, appears as hard slabs or cakes, about an inch thick by 
one foot in width and two in length. These slabs constitute the 
oil cakes of commerce, and in the entire form are shipped abroad 
for use by farmers in other countries. The unbroken cake is 
preferred for shipping, as it is the most condensed, and because 
the foreign feeder, suspicious of adulteration, knows that such 
o^kes are always as pure as the seed from which they were pro- 
duced. When required for feeding, the cake is reduced to the 
size of small hickory nuts or hazel nuts in a mill, the material 
being known as "nut cake." In this country the cake is usually 
ground to a meal at the factory and is then shipped in bags. 
Where the oil is secured by direct pressure from the ground flax 
seed as described above, the by-product is known as ' ' old process ' ' 
cake or oil meal. 

201. New-process oil meal. — In the manufacture of new- process 
oil meal, according to WoU, ^ the seed is crushed and heated to 
165° Fahr., as in the production of old-process meal. The crushed 
mass while warm is placed in large vertical cylinders or percola- 
tors, and over it naphtha, a volatile petroleum compound, is 

1 Bills. 14, 16, 19, 35. 

2 Rept. Wis. Sta. 1895. ^ 



150 Feeds and Feeding. 

poured and allowed to drain out at the bottom of the cylinder. 
Naphtha dissolves the oil from the ground flax seed, being repeat- 
edly added until nearly all the oil is extracted. After this has been 
accomplished, steam is let into the percolator, and the naphtha 
which did not drain off is gradually driven out of the mass as 
vapor. This is so effectively done that no smell of naphtha is 
noticeable in the residue. From the percolators, after steaming, 
the meal is transferred to driers, from which it is elevated to the 
meal bins. This by-product is known as ^' new-process " oil meal. 

202. The swelling process. — Woll^ gives the following simple 
method of ascertaining whether oil meal is new- or old- process: 
'■ ' Pulverize a small quantity of the meal and put a level table- 
spoonful of it into a tumbler; then add ten tablespoonfuls of 
boiling hot water to the meal, stir thoroughly and leave to settle. 
If the meal is new-process meal, it will settle in the course of an 
hour and will leave about half of the water clear on top." Old- 
process meal will remain jelly-like. 

203. Adulteration of oil meal. — Adulteration of oil meal may 
be brought about through using immature flax seed or that con- 
taining weed seed, or, finally, foreign matter may be added to the 
meal after grinding the cake. Immature flax seed contains starch, 
while fully mature seed contains none. Weed seeds contain much 
starch. If then starch grains are found in linseed meal, it is 
because of immature flax-seed grains, weed seeds, or both. 

The manufacturer of oil meal endeavors to have the flax-seed 
as free from foreign substances as possible, for the reason that 
such foreign matter absorbs and holds oil, thereby reducing the 
amount available. Any serious adulterations of oil meal must 
therefore occur through the direct addition of foreign material to 
the meal after the oil has been extracted. Woll found no oil meals 
purposely adulterated, though he examined many samples. 

204. Relative value of old- and new- process oil meal. — Woll, 2 
conducting artificial digestion trials with twelve samples of old- 
process and nine samples of new-process oil meal, found that 94.3 
per cent, of the protein in old-process and 84. 1 per cent, of pro- 

1 Loc. cit. 

2 Loc. cit. 



Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 151 

tein in the new-process meal were digestible. The lower digesti- 
bility of the new-process meal is doubtless due to the action of 
steam used in driving off the naphtha, as heat has been found to 
lower the digestibility of nitrogenous compounds in food sub- 
stances generally. Because of the more complete extraction of the 
oil, new-process meal contains more protein than does old-process. 
Because of the lower digestibility of new-process meal, a given 
weight of this feed contains somewhat less digestible protein than 
does old-process meal. Old-process meal is poorer in carbohy- 
drates but considerably richer in oil than new-process. 

At the Iowa Station, i Wilson and Eeed, testing the relative 
merits of the two meals with fattening cattle, found that new-pro- 
cess gave equally as good returns as old -process meal when fed 
in connection with other fodders. 

205. Value of oil in oil cake. — Eussian flax-seed oil cake carries 
more oil than does American. To decide the merits of oil cake con- 
taining much or little oil, tests were conducted in England by 
Cooke 2 under direction of the JSTorfolk Chamber of Agriculture, 
with Sir John B. Lawes and Dr. Voelcker as comiselors. Sixty 
sheep were divided into two lots of thirty each; to the first lot was 
given cake containing six to seven per cent, oil, while the second 
lot received cake containing from fifteen to sixteen per cent. oil. 
The by-fodders were the same with both lots. 



Results of feeding linseed cake, low in oil and rich in oil, to sheep — 
Cooke, Norfolk, England. 



Number of sheep 

Length of experiment, weeks 

Feed consumed per week. 

Linseed cake, pounds 

Clover hay chaff, pounds 

Swedes (turnips), pounds 

Gain in weight. 
Per head during experiment, pounds 
Increase per head, per week, pounds 



Low-oil cake. 


High-oil cake. 


30 
16 


30 
16 


4.8 

4.8 

87.8 


4.8 

4.8 

88.0 


33.5 
2.1 


38.3 
2.4 



1 Bui. 33. 

2 Jour. Roy. Agr. See, 1889. 



152 Feeds and Feeding. 

We observe that tlie cake rich in oil produced nearly five 
pounds more gain per liead than cake low in oil. The sheep 
receiving the cake rich in oil brought a higher price per pound 
than the others. The conclusion was that, '^weight for weight, 
linseed oil to the extent of fifteen per cent, in a cake has a much 
higher feeding value than have the other constituents of a linseed 
cake which in the absence of the oil would replace it." 

206. Oil cake or oil meal as a feeding stuff. — There is no more 
healthful feed than oil meal or oil cake. Its general effect is to 
place the animal in fine condition, with a pliable skin, an oily, 
sleek coat and a good quality of flesh upon handling. No other 
farm feed has such a general beneficial effect on the digestive 
tract as has oil meal, and the feeder should always have a quantity 
on hand to deal out to his stock whenever judgment directs its 
use. A small quantity of oil meal may be fed to horses, but as it 
is fattening and does not make hard flesh, the allowance should 
always be limited. (472) It is with fattening steers and with 
sheep that oil meal shows at its best. For steers two or three 
pounds can be given daily in connection with other feeds. Larger 
amounts may be used if prices permit. 

Clayi reports starting yearling steers on grass with two or three 
pounds of oil meal daily in addition to oat bran. Gradually the 
amount of meal was increased, until in the fall twelve pounds of 
meal were fed daily to each steer with satisfactory returns. (545, 
553) 

Voelcker, 2 conducting experiments with sheep at Woburn, 
England, writes: "From these results it must be concluded that 
it is more profitable to feed sheep on linseed cake alone than on 
one-half linseed cake and half barley." 

Owing to the price of oil meal, it should generally constitute 
not more than one-third of the grain ration, but to this limit it has 
a high value because of its helpful effect on the digestive tract, 
and in stimulating through its palatability a heavy consumption 
of the feeds with which it is mixed. For growing calves, oil meal 
is of great utility and has already come into general use with pro- 
gressive stockmen. 

» Live Stock Rept., Chicao:o, Jan. 20, 1893. 
» Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1892. 



Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 153 

The effect of oil meal on the quality of milk and butter has 
been questioned, but if not over two or three pounds are fed daily 
per cow, no ill results but much good will follow its use. (646-7) 
A handful of oil meal at a feed will prove healthful to growing 
pigs, and advertise itself in their sleek coats and general healthy 
appearance. (S92) The American farmer should give up the 
use of oil meal and adopt the practice of his English brother in 
feeding this valuable article in the nut form, which is more pala- 
table with cattle. 

207. Castor-oil seed in linseed meal. — Fatalities are occasion- 
ally reported among cattle by English feeders through using oil 
meal containing the pomace or beans of the castor-oil plant, which 
deadly poison occasionally gets into the meal by accident, in 
warehouses or elsewhere. The presence of castor beans or pom- 
ace in the ration is shown by severe purging of the animal eating 
even a very small amount of it, followed occasionally by death. 
Leather ^ reports a method of detecting the castor bean or castor 
pomace in stock feeds, which though too complicated for the 
feeder is useful to the chemist. 

208. Fertilizing constituents in linseed meals. — Linseed cake or 
meal is rich in the elements of fertility, especially nitrogen, and 
for this reason as well as its general good qualities and nutritive 
effect it is a favorite feeding stuff with the English stockman. 
The voidings of animals receiving this feed should be carefully 
saved, for in the fertility they contain rests quite a fraction of the 
first cost of this feed. 

209. Home use of oil meal. — A large portion of the oil cake 
produced in this country from flax seed finds a market in Euro- 
pean countries. The quantity shipped abroad varies greatly from 
year to year, according to the relative prices ruling for feeding 
stuffs in European and American markets. Woll ^ estimates that 
if half the oil cake manufactured in this country is shipped abroad, 
it means an amiual loss of more than thirteen million pounds of 
nitrogen, four million pounds of phosphoric acid and three and a 
half million pounds of potash, representing an aggregate value, as 

1 Analyst. Vol. 17; Jour. Eoy. Agr. Soc, 1892. 

2 Kept. Wis. Sta., 1895. 



154 Feeds and Feeding. 

commercial fertilizers, of over two million dollars. This loss of 
fertility to American farms is a serious matter, which can easily 
be prevented by feeding the oil cake at home. See Chap. XVI. 

210. Cotton seed. 1 — The products of the cotton plant used as 
food for live stock are cotton seed, cotton-seed cake or meal, and 
cotton-seed hulls. 

The cotton crop of the United States amounts to over 9,000,000 
bales annually on the average, yielding about 4,500,000 tons of 
cotton seed as a by-product, since for each pound of fiber the cot- 
ton plant produces about two pounds of seed. No one can acquaint 
himself with the great value of cotton seed and its by-products, 
and then consider this enormous annual output of seed, without 
becoming deeply impressed with the great possibilities for stock 
feeding at the South. Previous to 1860 almost all this vast sup- 
ply of stock feed was wasted by the Southern planter, who allowed 
the seed to rot back of the gin house in ignorance of its worth, 
while meat and other animal products were purchased at high cost 
from aSTorthern farmers. The utilization of the cotton seed and 
its products as food for both man and beast is an excellent exam- 
ple of what science has accomplished for the advancement of 
agriculture. 

According to the report of the Tenth Census, one hundred 
pounds of cotton seed yields approximately: 

Pounds. 

Cotton-seed meal 37.5 

Cotton-seed oil 12.5 

Cotton-seed hulls 48.9 

Short lint from hulls 1.1 

211. Feeding cotton seed. — Seed as left by the cotton-gin is now 
a common feed at the South for steers and dairy cows. It is 
usually supplied to cattle without treatment of any kind, though 
in some cases it is roasted, boiled or steamed before feeding. 

Trials at the Texas Station 2 by Gulley and Curtis show that 
seed at seven dollars per ton made cheaper though somewhat 
smaller gains than cotton -seed meal costing twenty dollars per 

» Much of tlie data here presented is from Bui. 33, The Cotton Plant, 
Cllit'o of Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. Agr. 
^ Buls. G, 10. 



Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 155 

ton. Connell and Carson, of the same Station/ conclude that 
boiled or roasted cotton seed is more palatable, less laxative and 
produces more rapid gains than raw cotton seed, but that the 
latter makes the cheaper gain. They state that the advantages 
obtained from roasting the seed do not pay for the expense 
involved. 

At the Mississippi Station, 2 Lloyd, summarizing three years' 
work, concludes that steamed cotton seed is better and cheaper 
for producing milk and butter than either raw seed or cotton- 
seed meal. Butter produced from cotton -seed meal cost twice 
as much as that produced from steamed or raw seed. The wise 
planter, knowing the value of whole cotton seed as a stock food, 
will not dispose of good seed to the oil mills at prices below its 
worth to him. 

212. Cotton-seed cake and meal. — At the oil mills the envelope 
of the cotton seed is cut by machinery in such a way that the oily 
kernels are freed from it. These seed -envelopes are known as 
cotton-seed hulls; they are dry, leathery and covered with lint. 
The oily kernels, separated from the hulls, are crushed, heated, 
placed between cloths or sacks and subjected to hydraulic pres- 
sure to remove the oil. The residue is a yellowish board-like 
cake about one inch thick, one foot wide and two feet in length. 
In this form it is shipi^ed abroad as cotton-oil cake. For home 
use the cake is reduced to meal by grinding, and transported in 
sacks the same as linseed meal. 

213. Cotton-seed meal for horses. — Gebek^ reports draft horses 
doing well on a ration containing two pounds of cotton-seed meal. 
The use of cotton seed-meal for horses will be greatly extended at 
the South if experiments reveal equally good results. 

214. Feeding steers cotton-seed meal and hulls. — The practice 
of fattening steers exclusively on cotton-seed hulls and cotton-seed 
meal was begun in the South about 1883. The business has so 
grown that it is estimated that 100, 000 cattle were fattened at the 
oil mills of the South for the season of 1893-94, besides large 
numbers of sheep. In these establishments the ration for steers at 

1 Bui. 27. 

2 Bui. 21. 

3 Landw. Vers. Sta., 42, p. 294. 



156 Feeds and Feeding. 

first consists of three or four pounds of cotton -seed meal, which is 
gradually increased to six, eight or even ton pounds per head 
daily, with all the hulls the steers will eat additional, which 
amounts to about four pounds of hulls for each pound of meal. 
The feeding period lasts from ninety to one hundred and twenty 
days. (558-560) 

In reply to an inquiry from the writer. Swift & Co. (Packers, 
Chicago) state that cotton-seed meal makes a good quality of beef. 
They express the opinion that a still better quality is produced 
where the meal is fed in connection with other concentrates. 

215. Effects of cotton seed on steer fat. — At the Texas Sta- 
tion, 1 Harrington and Adriance found the kidney, caul and body 
fats of steers fed raw, roasted or boiled cotton seed to have melt- 
ing points of 4.1,° 3.2° and 8.7° C. higher than the correspond- 
ing fatvS of corn-fed steers. The influence on tallow was somewhat 
less than that produced with butter; while on mutton suet it was 
marked as with butter. Butterine from beef tallow of steers fed 
cotton- seed by-products might give Becchi's test, thus confusing 
ordinary chemical tests for pure butter. 

216. Cotton-seed meal for dairy cows. — At the Maine Station, ^ 
Jordan found that the substitution of cotton- seed meal for an 
equal quantity of corn meal increased the production of milk and 
butter to a profitable extent. At the Pennsylvania Station,^ 
Hunt fed six pounds of cotton-seed meal per day to cows without 
apparent injury to health, and by substituting equal weights of 
cotton-seed meal for wheat bran increased the milk yield one-fifth. 
In general, feeding cotton-seed meal to dairy cows has proved 
satisfactory when the allowance has not exceeded five or six 
pounds daily for short periods, and three or four pounds for long 
periods. (637, 644, 646, 723) 

217. Effects of cotton seed on the quality of butter.— At the 
Texas Station, ^ Harrington and Curtis, experiDienting with cot- 
ton-seed and its by-products with dairy cows, conclude that these 
feeds materially raise the melting point of butter and lower its 

1 Bui. 29. 

2 Rents. 1885-87. 
»Bul. 17. 

* Agricultural Science, III, p. 79; Rept. 1889; Buls. 11, 29. 



Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 157 

volatile fatty acids; that when cotton seed is fed alone or forms 
a large part of the ration, a light-colored butter of inferior quality- 
results. Butter produced from the heavy feeding of cotton seed 
showed poor flavor and had the appearance of being overworked. 
Fed in reasonable amount, cotton seed and its by-products pro- 
duce satisfactory butter, which is firmer and will stand shipment 
better in warm climates than where no seed is fed. Harrington's 
results were corroborated by Wiley, ^ and Lupton and Anderson. 2 
The results of recent experiments at the Iowa Station '^ go in the 
opposite direction. The preponderance of evidence at hand shows, 
however, that cottonseed meal hardens butter, gives it a tallowy 
consistency and makes it deficient in natural color. 

218. Cotton-seed meal for calves and pigs. — At the North 
Carolina Station, * two calves getting from one to six ounces of 
cotton-seed meal daily, died after one month's feeding. Other 
instances of the same kind are reported. 

The use of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal for swine has been 
extensively investigated at the Texas Station ^ by Curtis. As a 
check in his experiments one lot of pigs was fed corn in each trial, 
and these pigs always made excellent gains, with no deaths, 
thereby showing that normal conditions generally prevailed. On 
the other hand, many pigs fed cotton seed or cotton-seed meal sick- 
ened and died in from six to eight weeks after feeding began. The 
mortality of the pigs receiving cotton-seed meal was 87 per cent.; 
when roasted seed was fed it was 75 per cent., and for boiled seed, 
25 per cent. In these experiments no trouble occurred until sev- 
eral weeks after feeding commenced, and it was observed that 
pigs escaping sickness and death for thirty days beyond the time 
when the trouble usually began were safe from attack, though they 
were permanently stunted in growth. As a result of his studies 
Curtis concludes: ''There is no profit whatever in feeding cotton 
seed in any form, or cotton-seed meal, to hogs of any age." 

219. Cotton-seed poisoning. — According to Curtis, ''the first 
sign of sickness appears in from six to eight weeks after cotton- 

1 Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Science, 1889, p. 84. 

2 Bui. 2.5, Ala. Sta. 

3 Bui. 32. 
* Bui. 109. 
6 Bui. 21. 



158 Feeds and Feeding. 

seed meal is added to the ration. It is shown by a moping dull- 
ness of the animal, with loss of appetite and tendency to lie 

apart The fatal cases all show spasmodic breathing, 

and in many instances the animal will turn in one direction only. 

When exhausted by his efforts the animal drops 

down suddenly, sometimes flat upon the belly, sometimes on its 
haunches, with his fore legs well apart to keep from falling over, 
almost always with evidence of more or less acute internal pain. At 
death a quantity of bloody foam exudes from mouth and nostrils." 

Cornevini fed two three-months old pigs 4.3 and 6.6 pounds, 
respectively, of brownish-yellow EgyjDtian cotton-seed meal, with 
fatal effect. A dog weighing fifty -three pounds w^as killed by 
subcutaneous injections of a watery extract from 1.7 pounds of 
seed. In all cases examination showed the digestive tract of the 
animals to be highly inflamed. The oil pressed from the seed 
had no poisonous properties. 

All efforts to determine the poisonous principle in the cotton 
seed — if there really be one — have thus far proved futile, and 
the matter is still a mystery. The ill effects have been ascribed 
to the lint of the seed, to the leathery seed coats causing injury 
to the delicate lining of the digestive tract, to moulds, to changes 
in the composition of the meal when exposed to the air, and to 
some definite poisonous principle in the seed itself, as in the 
case of the castor- oil bean. 

220. The rational use of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal. — 
It may be stated in general terms that when cotton seed or its by- 
products are fed in reasonable quantity with a proper complement 
of other feeding stuffs, satisfactory results are secured with all 
farm animals except calv^es and swine. 

Wet or mouldy cotton seed, or that which has heated, sliould 
not be fed. Good cotton -seed meal has a bright yellow color and 
a fresh, pleasant taste. Meal of a dull red color, due to exposure 
to the air, that from musty seed as well as that which has fer- 
mented, should not be used for feeding purposes. 

221. Cotton-seed hulls. — Until recently cotton -seed hulls were 
regarded as of no value except for fuel at the mills. It was soon 

1 Ann. Agrou. 1896; Milch Zeit. 1897, p. 342. 



Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds. 159 

found, however, that cattle would eat them freely, and they have 
come into extensive use for steer and cow feeding, having a market 
value of from two to four dollars per ton. Cotton-seed hulls, as 
shown by the table, contain less digestible nutrients than oat 
straw, but since they are a by-product which would otherwise be 
wasted, they are of considerable advantage to feeders in proximity 
to the mills. Where broken kernels of the cotton seed adhere to 
the hulls, their feeding value is considerably increased. 

222. Fertility in cotton seed. — So rich is cotton-seed meal in 
fertilizing elements that no small part of it goes at once from the 
oil mills to fertilizer works, there to be mixed with other sub- 
stances, and to be sold back to planters as a fertilizer. In the lint, 
which is the one object sought in cotton growing, there is but a 
trace of nitrogen and mineral matter, while the seed is rich in 
these elements of fertility. In the 4,500,000 tons of seed which 
must be grown each year in producing the cotton crop of the 
South, the amount of fertility taken from the land is almost 
beyond comprehension. In this continuous drain of fertility by 
cotton growing we have a partial explanation of the present 
poverty of the soils in many of the cotton districts. If the 
cotton grower will adopt mixed farming and feed cotton seed and 
cotton-seed meal to his stock, returning the manure to the land, 
two values will be received from the crop, and a rational agricult- 
ural practice inaugurated, which is sorely needed in a region 
where nature has done so much and man so little to place agricult- 
ure upon a substantial basis. 

223. Cocoanut meal. — The residue in the manufacture of cocoa- 
nut oil is known as cocoanut or cocoa meal. It is used quite exten- 
sively by dairymen in the vicinity of San Francisco. Cocoanut 
meal has the reputation of producing fine butter of considerable 
firmness and is therefore recommended for summer feeding to dairy 
cows. It may be used with advantage for swine and sheep, 
serving also as a partia l substitute for oats with working horses. 
(474) 

224. Palmnut meal. — This residue in the manufacture of palm 
oil has been extensively used in Europe as a stock food. It has 
good keeping qualities, is appetizing and easily digested. The 



160 Feeds and Feeding. 

oil palm is cultivated in Africa, South America and the West 
Indies, from which countries the meal is largely shipped to 
Europe. Palmnut meal is highly prized as a food for dairy cows. 

225. Peanut meal. — The by-product in the manufacture of oil 
from the peanut or earth-nut is used in various European countries 
for stock feeding. Peanut meal is one of the richest known foods 
in the amount of protein it yields. Voelcker ^ states that peanut 
cake proved on trial to be a useful feeding material for cattle, 
having a value about equal to beans. (892) 

226. Sunflower seed cake. — The sunflower is grown in Eussia 
on a commercial scale, one variety with small seeds producing an 
oil which serves as a substitute for other vegetable oils. The 
large seeds of another variety are consumed as a dainty by the 
people. 

The average of five experiments conducted by the North Caro- 
lina Station 2 in as many parts of the state showed a yield of 
sixty-five bushels of sunflower seed per acre. Mammoth Eussian 
sunflower seed weighed 26.7 pounds per bushel, with 21.5 per 
cent, oil; Black Giant seed weighed 32 pounds per bushel, with 
20.8 per cent. oil. 

Bartlett, of the Maine Station, ^ concludes that, ''With the 
same cultivation, corn produces a third more protein and twice 
as much carbohydrates as sunflower heads." 

227. Fertilizing constituents. — In general all the oil-bearing 
seeds are rich in fertilizing constituents, especially nitrogen. The 
extraction of the oil removes none of the fertilizing value, but 
concentrates it in the residue. The stockman who is interested 
in the fertility of his land as well as the nourishment of his stock 
should never forget these facts when considering the purchase of 
various feeding stuffs. 



1 .Jour. Eoy. Agr. Soc, 1893. 

2 Bui. 90 b. 

3 Kept. 1895. 



Minor Cereals, Oil-hearing and Leguminous Seeds. 161 



V. Leguminous Seeds. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Peas..... 

Sqja (soy) bean 

Cowpea 

Horse bean 



Lbs. 

89.5 
89.2 
85.2 

85.7 



Lbs. 

16.8 
29.6 
18.3 
22.4 



Lbs. 

51.8 
22.3 
54.2 

49.3 



Lbs. 

0.7 

14.4 

1.1 

1.2 



Lbs. 

30.8 
53.0 
33.3 
40.7 



Lbs. 

8.2 
18.7 



Lbs. 

9.9 
19.9 



12.0 



12.9 



228. The field pea. — The field pea is extensively grown in 
Canada for stock feeding, succeeding also along the northern rim 
of the corn belt and still farther north, where in some measure it 
takes the place of corn for feeding purposes. The richness of the 
pea in protein marks it as particularly useful with growing ani- 
mals, dairy cows and .pigs. A part of the protein in peas as well 
as in other leguminous seeds is identical in composition with the 
casein of milk, and is termed "vegetable" casein. This has led 
some writers to affirm that meals from these seeds are useful in 
mixtures for calf feeding. Pea meal is sodden in character and 
too heavy to be fed as the only grain allowance. It should be 
lightened or extended by mixing with it bran, ground oats or corn 
meal. 

Peas may be harvested while still green by turning pigs into the 
pea field as soon as the seeds are well formed. Under this sys- 
tem the animals harvest the crop without labor to the stockman, 
and, receiving that sort of food which forms bone and muscle, 
they are prepared for final fattening on corn or other dry food. 
Peas are often sown with oats, the lattet plants forming support 
for the weak vines. (Ill, 311, 860) 

229. Soja (soy) bean. — This Japanese plant flouiishes in the 
Southern states and as far north as Kansas. In Japan it serves 
for human food, but in this country it is used only by stock- 
men. Like all leguminous seeds, the soja bean is rich in pro- 
tein, standing perhaps at the head of the list; unlike many in 
its class, it is also rich in oil. Because the seeds must be 

11 



162 Feeds and Feeding. 

gathered by hand, the plant has generally been used only for 
forage. At the Kansas Station^ this plant gave yields ranging 
from 12,5 to 19 bushels of beans per acre. At the Massachusetts 
Station^ a comparative test of soja-bean meal with cotton-seed 
meal terminated in favor of the former for milk and butter pro- 
duction. (310) See Farmers' Bui. 58, Office of Experiment Sta- 
tions, Dept. Agr., Washington. 

230. Covvpea. — This plant now holds ah important place with 
Southern stockmen because of its rapid growth and the large 
amount of forage it yields. The earlier varieties will make a 
satisfactory growth as far north as Wisconsin, though all the 
seeds will not ripen before frost. As with the soja bean, tlu; 
seeds which ripen first must be gathered by hand. For this 
reason the crop is usually cut for hay or silage. 

At the Alabama Station, ^ Duggar fed cowpeas to fattening pigs 
with excellent returns. More lean meat was found in the bodies 
of pigs fed cowpeas than those fed corn meal only. (109, 863) 

At the Texas Station, ^ the cowpea gave yields ranging from 
eight to thirty-five bushels per acre. These findings point to the 
value of the x)lant for producing concentrated feed. (309) 

231. Horse bean. — This legume is used in England for feeding 
stock, especially horses. The horse bean grows fairly well in 
some parts of Canada, but has never proved a success in the 
United States. 

232. The common field bean. — Many varieties of the common 
field bean are grown in this country for human food. In bean- 
growing districts, cull beans are purchasable in large quantities, 
usually at low jjrices, and should be used by stockmen, since they 
are then a cheaj) feed. Sheep are fond of beans administered in 
a raw state. For other animals they should be cooked. Since 
they are rich in protein, corn meal is a natural addition to the 
porridge. 

233. Fertilizing constituents. — All leguminous seeds are rich 
in nitrogen with from fair to rather high mineral content. The 
soja bean is of particular value in the nitrogen and ash it carries. 

» Bui. 32. 2 Rept. 1893. 

s Bui. 82. •• Bui. 34. 



CHAPTER X. 

INDIAN COEN AS A TORAGE PLANT. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 





Dry 

matter. 


Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Green fodder corn (aver- 
age, all varieties) 


Lbs. 

20.7 
57.8 
59.5 


Lbs. 

1.0 
2.5 
1.7 


Lbs. 

11.6 
84.6 
32.4 


Lbs. 

0.4 

1.2 
0.7 


Lbs. 

4.1 

17.6 
10.4 


Lbs. 

1.5 

5.4 
2.9 


Lbs. 


Fodder corn, fleld-cured.... 
Corn stover, field-cured 


8.9 
14.0 



234. Concerning Indian corn. — Indian corn (maize) is the im- 
perial agricultural plant of America. This giant annual grass 
reaches a height of from seven to fifteen feet in four or five mouths' 
growth, producing under favorable conditions from 30,000 to 
50,000 pounds of green forage per acre, of which from 5,000 to 
9,000 pounds are dry matter. If grown in a dense mass but little 
seed forms, and we have a rank grass which cures into a bright, 
nutritious coarse hay. If the plants are grown at some distance 
one from another, a large yield of grain results, with excellent 
forage as a secondary product. 

Were a reliable seedsman to advertise Indian corn by a new 
name, recounting only its actual merits while ingeniously conceal- 
ing its identity, his words would either be discredited or he would 
have an unlimited number of pui-chasers for this seed -novelty at 
almost any figure he might name. The possibilities of American 
stock farms in the live stock they may carrj^ and the animal prod- 
ucts they may turn off is measured only by the quantity of corn 
and clover which the land will produce, and this, under good 
management, seems almost unlimited. 

235. Definitions. — To avoid confusion the term "fodder corn" 
or "corn fodder," used in this book, is applied to stalks of corn, 



164 



Feeds and Feeding. 



either green or dry, which are grown for forage and from whiclt 
the ears or ^^ nnbbins," if they carry any, have not been removed. 
' ' Stover ' ' applies to the dry stallcs of corn from which the ears 
have been removed. Fodder corn or corn fodder, then, is the corn 
phint, either fresh or cured, with or without ears, which has been 
grown for forage; stover is shock corn minus the ears. 

236. Thickness of planting and nutrients. — At the Illinois Sta- 
tion i Morrow and Hunt, studying the results of thick and thin 
seeding on the yield of nutrients, reached conclusions at the end 
of three years' study which are summarized in the table below. 
In these trials dent corn was planted in varying rates, from one 
kernel every three inches to one every twenty -four inches, the 
corn rows being three feet eight inches apart. 

Results of planting corn kernels various distances apart in roics, aver- 
age of three years' trials — Illinois ^Station. 




We observe that with the kernels three inches apart in the 
row, or 47,000 per acre, there were thirteen bushels of sound 
ears and forty-six bushels of poor ears or nubbins per acre. 
Poor as are these returns from the standpoint of grain produc- 
tion, we gather the interesting and exceedingly important fact 
that with thick planting there were the largest returns in total 
digestible nutrients per acre. Over 6,000 pounds of digestible 
dry matter were secured in nearly five tons of stover and corn 
harvested. With this thickness of seeding there were 3. 6 pounds 
of stover for each pound of grain. The largest yield of sound 

1 Bui. 13. 



Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 165 

ear corn was returned from planting the kernels twelve inches 
apart in the row, or about 12,000 per acre, from which the returns 
were seventy-three bushels of sound ears and sixteen bushels of 
poor ears per acre, with only about 600 pounds less digestible 
matter than was returned from planting the kernels four times as 
thick. 

Morrow holds that, for Illinois conditions, 10,000 good stalks 
of corn i3er acre (secured by planting about 12,000 kernels) give 
the best returns in grain. The lesson from the above table is 
confirmed by the work of other Stations, and teaches that when 
the stockman is seeking the greatest amount of nutrients possible 
from the corn crop he will plant the seed so thickly as to choke 
the ears to about half their natural size. If, on the other hand, 
his aim is to produce grain, with stover secondary, then he will 
plant the seed grains at such distances one from another as will 
allow each individual x^lant to produce one or more full -sized 
ears of corn. Xo rule can be given which is applicable in 
all cases for guidance as to the amount of seed corn to be planted 
per acre. This varies greatly and is determined by local condi- 
tions. One must know quite accurately the capacity of his land 
for this crop and seed accordingly, bearing in mind, as shown 
above, that thick seeding gives the most total nutrients, while 
medium seeding gives the most sound grain. 

237. Increase of nutrients during maturity. — At the I«[ew York 
(Geneva) Station i Ladd conducted investigations in relation to the 
storage of nutrients by the growing corn plant, and has arranged his 
data in excellent form for study. His findings are substantiated 
by results in the same line obtained at several other Stations. The 
great importance of the subject is sufficient excuse for the space 
here occupied. The stockman should know what the corn plants 
in his field are doing in the way of gathering food between 
early growth and maturity. He should have a keen appreciation 
of this wonderful process of food -gathering, and as full knowledge 
as possible of when and under what conditions the maximum 
results are obtained by the plant. Ladd's study of the corn plant 
extends from the time it was tasseled until the kernels were 

1 Kept. 1889. 



166 



Feeds and Feeding. 



ripe. To the novice, when a fiekl of corn is fully tasseled, 
it has about completed its growth, but the following table shows 
in a most effective manner that great changes are still going on 
within the stalks and that the storage of nutrients has only fairly 
begun: 

Water and dry matte)^ in corn crop at different periods after tasseling — 
New York (Geneva) Station. 



Date of 
cutting. 



July 30. 
Aug. 9. 
Aug. 21. 
Sept. 7. 
Sept. 23. 



Stage of growth. 



Fully tassel od 

Fully silked 

Kernels watery to full milli 

Kernels glazing 

Ripe 



Com 


Water 


per 


per 


acre. 


acre. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


9.0 


8.2 


12.9 


11.3 


16.3 


14.0 


16.1 


12.5 


14.2 


10.3 



Dry 

matter 

per 

acre. 



Tons. 

.8 
1.5 
2.3 
3.6 
4.0 



The table shows that an acre of corn when fully tasseled 
weighed nine tons, more than eight of which were water. The 
water in the corn continued to increase in total amount until 
August 21, at which time the kernels had reached the full milk 
stage, after which it decreased. The total dry matter increased 
from the beginning. Between the milk and glazing stages there 
was the remarkable increase of over a ton of dry matter per acre 
of crop in seventeen days. From glazing to full ripeness there 
was a further increase of dry matter, though it was small. 

238. Nutrients at different stages. — Ladd found the percent- 
age of nutrients in the crop at different periods to be as given 
below: 

Percentage of nutrients in the dry matter of ripening corn — Neio 
York (Geneva) Station. 





July 30. 


Aug. 9. 


Aug. 21 


Sept. 7. 


Sept. 23 


Ash 


'8.6 
14.8 
31. S 
40.4 
4.5 


6.5 
14.2 

28.4 

45 . 5 

5.5 


5.0 
10.3 
27.2 
52.6 

4.9 


4.2 

8.9 
24.4 
58.9 

3.6 


4.6 


Albunii noids 


8.6 


Crude fiber 


21.9 


Nitrogen-free extract 


61.0 


Ether extract 


4.0 







Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 



167 



In studying the foregoing table the reader should bear in mind 
the great increase in dry matter which occurs as the plant ripens. 

239. Total nutrients of the corn crop. — The preceding table 
would be misleading were it not followed by another showing the 
total nutrients in the crop at different i)eriods of maturity: 

Water and nutrients in an acre of corn at different stages of matu- 
rity — New York (Geneva) Station. 



Per acre. 



Yield 

Water 

Dry matter 

Ash 

Albuminoids 

Crude fiber 

Nitrogen-free extract 
Ether extract 



Tas- 

seled, 

July 30. 



Lbs, 

18,04.5.0 

16,426.0 
1,619.0 
188.9 
2.39.8 
514.2 
053.9 
72.2 



Silked, 
Aug. 9. 



Lbs. 

25,745.0 

22,666.0 
3,078.0 
201.3 
4.36.8 
872.9 
1,399.3 
167.8 



Milk, 
Aua-. 21. 



Lbs. 

32,600.0 

27,957.0 

4,643.0 

232.2 

478.7 

1,262.0 

2,441.3 

228.9 



Glazed, 

Sept. 7. 



Lbs. 

32,295.0 

25,093.0 

7,202.0 

302.5 

643.9 

1,755.9 

4,239.8 

260.0 



Ripe, 

Sept. 
23. 



Lbs. 

28,460.0 

20,542.0 

7,918.0 

364.2 

677.8 

1,734.0 

4,827.6 

314.3 



From the above we learn that the crop increased about 10,000 
pounds in weight between tasseling and maturing. Of this increase 
about 4,000 pounds were water, the remainder being dry matter. 
The dry matter in the crop, which amounted to only 1,600 pounds 
at tasseling time, increased to 7, 900 pounds when the corn was 
ripe. The analyses show that between the milk and the glazing 
stages and on to the final period of ripening there is a constant 
and remarkable increase in the nutrients stored by this plant. 

240. Changes in protein. — Ladd also made a study of the albu- 
minoid and amide nitrogen in the crop with the following results: 

Albuminoid and amide nitrogen of the ripening corn crop — Neio 
York {Geneva) Station. 



Date. 



July 30 
Aug. 9 
Aug. 21 
Sept. 7 
Sept. 23 



Stage of maturity. 



Tasseled , 

Silked 

Kernels in milk 

Corn glazed 

Corn ripe , 



Total 
nitrogen. 



Lbs. 

38.4 

69.9 

77.6 

103.0 

108.5 



Albu- 
minoid 
nitrogen. 



Lbs. 

27.4 
44.6 
66.4 

78.5 
91.1 



Amide 
nitrogen. 



Lbs. 

11.0 
25.2 
17!.3 
24.5 
17.4 



168 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The table shows that while there was a steady increase in the 
total albuminoid nitrogen up to the maturity of the plant, the 
amide nitrogen varied greatly at different periods^ being less 
when the corn was ripe than at earlier dates. 

241, Nitrogen-free extract. — The greatest increase in nutrients 
between tasseling and maturity was with the nitrogen-free extract, 
that part of the corn plant next in value to protein. 

Increase of nitrogen-free extract in ripening corn — New York 
(Geneva) Station. 



Date. 


Stage of maturity. 


Glucose. 


Sucrose. 


Starch. 


July 30 

Aug. 9 

Aug. 21 


Tasseled 


Lbs. 

58.3 
300.4 
0G5.0 
720.2 
538.4 


Lbs. 

9.1 

110.8 

129.0 

95.1 

148.9 


Lbs. 

199 2 


Silked 


491 3 


In niilk 


70() 7 


Sept. 7 


Glazed 


1,735.0 


.Sept. 23 


Ripe 


2,852 9 







Concerning these changes Ladd says: "The total starch per 
acre increased more than twenty-three times between tasseling of 
corn and harvesting, a period of fifty-five days. From the stage 
of glazing of corn until full rij)ening the increase in dry matter 
was 716 pounds, the increase in nitrogen-free extract 587 pounds, 
while the increase of sugar and starch was 989 pounds, or greater 
by 273 pounds than the entire gain in crop. That is, much of the 
nitrogen-free extract, which at period of glazing of corn was in 
the transitory state, had been translocated and transformed into 
sugars and starch." 

Jordan, of the Maine Station, i studying the same subject, writes: 
" Owing to the relatively large production of sugars and starch 
in the late stages of growth, a pound of the dry substance of the 
mature well-eared corn plant x>ossesses a higher nutritive value 
than at any earlier stage of growth." Compare with develop- 
ment of the timothy plant, Article 259. 

242. Importance of maturity. — These tables teach the farmer 
that he should delay harvesting the corn crop until the plants 
have been allowed to accomj)lish their full work of gathering, 
elaborating and locating nutritive matter. To harvest a corn 
crop for forage or silage while the grain is in the milk stage is to 



Kept. 1895. 



Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 



169 



sacrifice a large part of the feeding value which would come 
to this crop were harvesting delayed until the corn is passing the 
glazing stage. In the large amount of water which the corn plant 
carries when quite green, the stockman learns why corn which 
has just tasseled, when thrown to his cattle, often shows such 
unsatisfactory results. Stock cannot consume enough of such 
forage to supply themselves with the nourishment required. 

243. Distribution of nutrients in the plant. — The proportion of 
nutrients in the several parts of the corn plant has been studied 
at several Stations with interesting results. Armsby, ^ studying 
the returns of corn crops at four Stations, reports the following 
yields of ears and stover: 

•Station. Ears. Stover. 

New Jersey ( Dent ) 4, 7 74 lbs. 4, 041 lbs. 

Connecticut (Flint) 4,216 lbs. 4,360 lbs. 

Wisconsin ( Dent ) 4, 941 lbs. 4, 490 lbs. 

Pennsylvania (Dent) 3, 727 lbs. 2,460 lbs. 



Average 4,415 lbs. 3,838 lbs. 

We learn from the above that somewhat more than one-half 
the total weight of the corn crop, grown for grain, is found in the 



ears. 



Concerning the nutrients in corn Armsby gives the following: 

Digestible nutrients in one acre of corn and stover — average of crop 

at four Stations. 



Digestible nutrients. 


Ears. 


Stover. 


Total crop. 


Protein 


Lbs. 

244 

2,301 

125 


Lbs. 

83 

1,473 

22 


Lbs. 
327 


(yarbolivdi'ates 




Kther extract 


147 






Total 


2,670 
63 


1,578 
37 


4,248 


Per cent 


100 







We learn that 37 per cent, of the total digestible nutrients in a 
crop of corn grown for the grain is in the stover and 63 jier 
cent, in the ears. 



' Ropt. Penn. Sta., 1887. 



170 



Feeih and Feeding. 



244. The corn plant under Maryland conditions. — At the Mary- 
land Station! Patterson studied the nutrients of the corn crop of 
that region with the following results: 

Yield per acre of digestible nutrients in different portions of the corn 
plant — Maryland Station. 



Parts. 


Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitrogen- 
free extract. 


Ether 
extract. 


Total dry 

substance. 


Ears 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
157 

10 
6 
6 
6 


Lbs, Lbs. 
1343 


Lbs. 
30 

13 
4 
2 

13 


Lbs. 
1,530 




5 

14 
4 
5 






Topped fodder 

Blades 


190 

88 
168 
241 


232 
105 
246 
804 


450 
197 


Husks 


426 


Stubble 


569 







We learn that for Maryland conditions 48 per cent, of the 
digestible matter api^ears in the ear and 52 per cent, in various^ 
portions of the stover. 

245. What the corn plant yields in Georgia. — At the Georgia 
Station, 2 Bedding, working out results for his region, reports: 

Digestible nutrients in each portion of the corn plant — Georgia 

Station. 



Parts. 



Butts 

Top stalks 

Bottom blades, 

Top blades 

Shucks 

Tassels , 

Grain 

Cobs 



Constituents. 


Protein, 


Nitrogen-l'ree 
extract.* 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


8.0 


485.0 


3.9 


95.4 


5.9 


106.2 


3.5 


68.7 


7.4 


198.8 


1.1 


20.3 


159.0 


1,604.0 


9.0 


249.0 



*Licludingfat X 2.27. 

By the above we learn that about two-thirds of the value of the 
corn crop of Georgia is found in the oars, the results corroborating 
Arnisby's statement. 



1 Bui. 20. 



^ Bui. 30. 



Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 



171 



246. Losses in field curing. — Since corn forage gathered into 
shocks (stooks) presents a considerable surface to the weather, 
losses must occur through v/ashing by rains and wasting of the 
leaves by the wind. It has been found, however, that larger 
losses occur in shock corn than is possible from this cause alone. 

At the Wisconsin Station, Woll^ determined the dry matter 
and protein in a crop of corn when it was cut and shocked, and 
again after the shocks had cured and been exposed to the weather 
for several months. The investigation extended over four years, 
with the results given in the table: 

Losses of shock corn in field — Wisconsin Station. 



Average for two varieties, total M'eight 

Dry matter 

I'rotein 

Results of four years^ work. 

Dry matter 

Protein 



Green 
fodder. 



Lbs. 

129,014 

32,432 
2,581 

72,164 
5,706 



Cured 
fodder. 



Lbs. 

31,738 

23,270 

1,682 

54,937 
4,317 



Loss. 



Lbs. 



9,162 
899 

17,227 
1,389 



Per cent 



28.3 
34.8 

23.8 
24.3 



We are told of a loss of nearly one-foui^th of dry matter and 
l)rotein which the crop contained at harvest time by preserving 
corn forage in the usual manner. This seems incredible, but the 
subject has been studied by too many Stations with unanimity of 
results to admit of further question. Cooke ^ has shown that 
heavy losses occur in shock corn in the dry climate of Colorado. 
The substances lost through wasting are protein and nitrogen-free 
extract (sugar, starch, etc.), the more valuable portions of the 
forage. Xor is it possible to entirely prevent these losses by 
placing the cured fodder under shelter or in the stack, for it has 
l)een found that the forage continues to waste even under these 
favorable conditions. 

At this time we are unable to state through what instrumen- 
tality all these losses are brought about. Some substance is washed 
away by rain, and the winds carry off exposed leaves and parts 
of the stalks on the outside of the shocks, but these sources of loss 



1 A Book on Silage. 

2 Bill. 30, Colo. ExiJt. Sta. 



172 Feeds and Feeding. 

are not sufficient to account for all the shortage. Probably fer- 
mentations are slowly but steadily wasting the substance of the 
forage. 

In view of these facts, when calculating the value of a crop of 
corn forage, a deduction should be made from its worth at harvest 
time for its reduced value at feeding time, if the latter occurs 
some months after harvest. 

247. Fodder corn for soiling. — Feeding corn in the green stage 
should become a general practice upon most farms, for the reason 
that, during the fall, pastures are often scanty, and if forced to 
subsist entirely upon them animals cannot do their best. It will 
be found that an acre of corn fed while greeif^ if quite well matured, 
may so advance the condition of steers, dairy cows or other stock 
as to yield a double value over what it would if saved until winter 
and fed out at a time when there is often a plethora of the same 
material. 

248. Shocking (stooking) corn. — The process of shocking corn 
is too well understood to need description. The loss from weath- 
ering can be much reduced by making larger shocks than are 
commonly found, and exercising care in their construction. In 
the shock the corn stalks stand almost vertical, and if the shock 
be not bound too tightly there is room enough when the stalks wilt 
to admit currents of air which pass from below upward and out. 
Such currents carry off the moisture and dry the interior portion 
of the shock, without allowing mould to work injury to the drying 
material. No simple system of preservation can be more perfect 
for the end in view than that which we find in the common 
method of harvesting corn forage by standing the stalks upright 
in closely-bound bunches. When shock corn is pronounced dry 
by the farmer, it still carries a much larger percentage of water 
than does hay, as we learn from the table. This fact should not 
be overlooked when considering the amount of material required 
for nourishing farm animals. 

249. reeding shock corn. — In districts where corn is grown for 
the grain and put into shocks, farmers not infrequently follow the 
practice of separating the corn from the stover by husking. For 
steer feeding there seems no valid reason for the extra expense 



Indkoi Corn as a Forage Flant. 173 

incurred by the operation, for the steers can as well perform the 
work. The same statement holds true in some measure for dairy 
cows. An ear of corn with the husks still about it possesses an 
aroma which is largely lost when it is thrown into the crib, where 
it is often polluted by vermin. That cattle appreciate the fresh- 
ness of unhusked corn is shown by the eagerness with which 
they search the stalks for ears. Whoever has watched a cow 
searching through a bundle of stover for a possible ear or nubbin 
of corn which the would-be thrifty farmer has by accident over- 
looked, cannot fail to be impressed with the folly of the farmer in 
so carefully performing his work. It is true that when fed in this 
manner some corn will pass through the animal unbroken, but 
feeding trials have shown that despite such waste there is usually 
profit in the system over that of husking and reducing the corn 
to meal. A part of the corn can be husked to furnish grain for 
other purposes, and the remainder of the crop left for the cattle. 
By a little study to ascertain the amount of grain the shocks 
carry, the feeder can soon adjust the supi^ly of corn to forage so 
as to give each animal its proper allowance of grain along with 
the fodder. Because one's ancestors laboriously husked corn and 
afterwards divided the crop with the miller for grinding is no 
reason why in these later days of high-priced labor and low- 
priced products we should still be husking corn for cattle, when 
these animals have all day in which to do the work and willingly 
perform it, (581) 

250. Cured fodder corn. — Corn grown and cured for forage con- 
stitutes a coaree hay of high feeding value produced at low cost. 
Because only a portion of the nutriment has gone into the ear, 
the stiilks of fodder corn are more nutritious and palatable than 
stover, which has lost much of its substance to the grain it pro- 
duced. 

In feeding fodder corn to horses care should be taken that they 
do not get too much grain; otherwise there is no better forage for 
them. Corn fodder, in which the ears have been choked to half 
or less than half their normal size by thick planting, is one of the 
most valuable forms of roughage for dairy cows, steers in the first 
stages of fattening, and young cattle. All the corn these animals 



174 Feeds and Feeding. 

require can be supplied them unhusked, in which form there is 
no labor or expense for husking and grinding. The ears of thickly- 
grown fodder corn are small, palatable and easily masticated. 
When corn fodder is fed to cattle they should be allowed ample 
time to work it over before cleaning out the mangers or feed racks. 
The Indian corn plant grown for hay, and carrying more or less 
grain, according to recxuirements, possesses a value not fully appre- 
ciated by stockmen generally. We have become so accustomed 
to growing this grass for the grain it yields and using the rough- 
age as a sort of straw, to be eaten or wasted as accident determines, 
that we have almost wholly overlooked its hay-making qualities. 
(652) 

251. Corn stover. — The forage which remains after removing 
the ear has a higher feeding value than is usually ascribed to it. 
For idle horses and growing colts corn stover may be used in 
winter with advantage. This forage is now commonly fed to 
dairy cows, and experience attests its value. By running stover 
through the shredder or feed cutter the proportion readily eaten 
by cattle may be materially increased. (653) 

252. " Pulling " fodder. — At the South the custom prevails of 
stripping the leaves from the corn stalk while still green and cur- 
ing them into a nutritious form of hay. Stubbs, of the Louisiana 
Station, ^ found that ' ' pulling ' ' fodder from the stalks of corn 
caused a shrinkage in the yield of grain of from fifteen to twenty 
per cent. Eedding, at the Georgia Station, 2 after investigating the 
subject, writes: '' The strongest argument against the practice 
is the meager results of fodder compared with the amount of laboi- 
involved. The same labor employed in mowing grass or any good 
forage crop, even without the use of improved harvesting ma- 
chinery, would yield vastly greater results." Stock-growing at 
the South will never attain the dignity the situation merits until 
the custom of " ijulling " corn leaves is abandoned and the planters 
address themselves to intelligent modern methods of cultivating 
and harvesting the many valuable forage plants which can be 
grown in that region. 

1 Bui. 22; see also Bui. 104, N. C. Sta. 
« Bui. 10. 



Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. 175 

253. A new corn product. — The pitli of the corn stalk furnishes 
a packing for the walls of vessels which will prevent the entrance 
of water into the ship when the hull is pierced. It is found that 
for each pound of suitable j)ith there are fifteen pounds of blades, 
husks and stalks remaining as w aste or by-products. It is pro- 
posed to grind this waste into a meal for stock feeding. At the 
Maryland Station, i Patterson found this new food substance more 
digestible than whole fodder, in feeding trials with steers, and 
quite satisfactory in comparison with corn blades. Cows and steers 
fed corn-stalk meal ruminated as naturally as if feeding on hay. 

254. The so-called corn-stalk disease. — In the central corn dis- 
tricts the common practice is to remove the ears of corn from the 
standing stalks and turn cattle into the stalk fields to gather the 
ears left by the buskers and consume what they will of the rough- 
age. Not infrequently, within a day or two after turning the 
cattle into the fields, they suddenly sicken and die. Thousands 
of cattle are lost each fall in this way, and the subject has attracted 
much attention and elicited several theories as to the cause. 
Moore 2 concludes that the disease is probably due to some poison- 
ous principle in the dried corn stalk or its leaves. Without 
being able to name a remedy, he prudently points a way by which 
all danger from this source can be avoided. He calls attention 
to the fact that the corn-stalk disease never attacks cattle fed 
shock corn or corn stover. He recommends that the stockman 
shock at least a portion of his corn crop and feed this to his cattle 
instead of turning them into the stalk fields. Possibly, too, if 
stockmen will feed shock corn to their cattle for a few days or 
weeks previous to turning them into the stalk fields, the danger 
may be averted, since by this practice the animals will become 
accustomed to this form of feed. 

255. Corn smut. — Besides the direct losses caused by corn 
smut, it has frequently been charged that the smut masses are 
poisonous to cattle eating them. To settle this important matter, 
a number of experiments have been conducted in which the smut 
was fed to cattle and the effects noted. 



• Bui. 43. 

* Bui. 10, Bur. of An. Ind., U. S. Dept. Agr; see also Bui. 58, Kan. Sta, 



176 Feeds and Feeding. 

The first trial reported is tliat by Gamgee, ^ in whicli forty-two 
pounds of corn smut were fed to two cows without ill effects. 

At the Wisconsin University ^ the writer conducted a smut- 
feeding experiment with two milch cows in the following manner: 
Clean smut was fed with bran, only a few ounces being daily given 
at first, the allowance being increased as rapidly as the cows 
would consume it. When the quantity fed reached thirty-two 
ounces daily for each cow, one of them refused to eat the feed con- 
taining the smut, and the experiment with her was closed. The 
other cow seemed greedy for this substance, and the allowance 
was increased until sixty-four ounces, an amount whicli filled a 
peck measure, was fed. Yov a time the cow seemed to thrive on 
the smut and was growing fat, but was suddenly taken sick and 
died within a few hours after the trouble was first observed. A 
post-mortem examination revealed no certain cause of the fatality. 

At the Michigan Station ^ Smith fed corn smut to four cows, the 
maximum daily allowance reaching eleven pounds of fairly well 
cleaned smut f)er cow. Ten pounds of such smut filled a half 
bushel measure. When eating eleven pounds of smut daily, one 
cow showed indisposition for a time, but soon returned to normal 
health. 

In experiments by the Bureau of Animal Industry, "* U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, Washington, corn smut was fed to heifers 
without ill effects. With all the trials but one ending with- 
out disaster, it seems reasonable to conclude that corn smut is 
at least not a virulent poison, if indeed it is one in any sense of 
the word. It is probable that in the Wisconsin and Michigan 
cases, where one cow died and the other wfis indisposed, the ani- 
mals suffered because of eating too much highly nitrogenous 
material rather than anything poisonous. Worse results might 
have followed the feeding of the same volume of corn meal or 
cotton-seed meal. It would seem that there is little or no danger 
from corn smut unless cattle consume a large quantity. This is 
possible where they are allowed to roam through stalk fields and 



» Rept. Diseases of Cattle, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, 1871. 

* Rept. Bd. Regents, 1881. 
3 Bui. 137. 

* Bui. 10. 



Indian Corn as a Forage Plant. Yll 

gather what they will. There may be cases where animals seek 
out the smut and eat inordinately of it. 

256. Tertilizing constituents. — The table shows that corn fodder 
carries a fair amount of nitrogen, percentagely. Because of the 
large tonnage, the crop takes from the laud a considerable quan- 
tity of this element. Stover is quite rich in potash. 

On the whole, the corn crop in any form must be regarded as 
a carbohydrate crop and utilized on that basis. Its complement 
in feeding is clover or some legume, and these latter plants should 
always be grown on the same farm in order to keep the fields in 
good fertility as well as furnish the stock nitrogen and mineral 
matter, in which corn is somewhat deficient. 
12 



CHAPTER XL 



THE GRASSES, FRESH AND CURED — STRAW. 

I. Grass for Fasture and Soiling. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matlpr 

in 101) 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Orass. 
Pasture grasses (mixed) ... 

Kentucky blue grass 

Timothy, different stages... 
Orcliard grass, in bloom.... 

Redtop, in bloom 

Oat fodder 

Bye fodder 

Sorghum 

Hay. 

Timothy 

Orchard grass 

Redtop 

Kentucky blue grass 

Hungarian grass 

Mixed grasses 

Rowen (mixed) 

St7-aw. 

Wheat 

Bye 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat chaff. 

Oat chaff 



Lbs. 

20.0 
34. 9 
38.4 
27.0 
34.7 
37.8 
23.4 
20.6 

86.8 
90.1 
91.1 
78.8 
92.3 
87.1 
83.4 

90.4 
92.9 
90.8 
85.8 

85.7 
85.7 



Lbs. 

2.5 
3.0 
1.2 
1.5 
2.1 
2.6 
2.1 
0.8 



4.9 
4.8 
4.8 
4.5 
5.9 
7.9 

0.4 
0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.3 
1.5 



Lbs. 

10.2 
19.8 
19.1 
11.4 
21.2 
18^9 
14.1 
12.2 

43.4 
42.3 
46.9 
37.3 
51.7 
40.9 
40.1 

86.3 
40.6 
38.6 
41.2 
23.3 
33.0 



Lbs. 

0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.6 
1.0 
0.4 
0.4 

1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
2.0 
1.3 
1.2 
1.5 

0.4 

0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.7 



Lbs. 



9.1 



4.8 
4.3 



4.9 
3.3 

2.3 

12.6 
13.1 
11.5 
11.9 
12.0 
14.1 
16.1 

5.9 
4.6 
6.2 
13.1 
7.9 



Lbs. 



2.3 



2.6 
1.6 



1.3 
1.5 
0.9 

5.3 
4.1 

3.6 
4.0 
3.5 

2.7 
4.3 

1.2 

2.8 
2.0 
3.0 
7.0 



Lba. 



7.5 



7.6 
7.6 



3.8 
7.3 
2.3 

9.0 

18.8 
10.2 
15.7 
13.0 
15.5 
14.9 

5.1 

7.9 

12.4 

20.9 

4.2 



257. Concerning pastures. — The time for turning stock to 
pasture is hailed with delight by stockmen, for it means exercise 
and outdoor life to animals long confined in quarters which at best 
are not as satisfactory as those afforded by the change. It means 
dropping a large part of the '^ chores " which bind together with 
a cord of duty all the daylight hours of winter. With the live 
«tock caring for themselves in the pasture comes the opportunity 



The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 179 

for sowing tlie seed and gathering the harvest from which prov- 
ender for the next season is to come. 

It is a fact which cannot escape the attention of students of 
agricultural economics, that our stockmen rely too blindly upon 
pastures for the maintenance of their cattle during half the year. 
But a few centuries ago the inhabitants of Great Britain trusted 
to the growth of natural herbage for the support of their stock not 
only in summer but throughout the entire year. If their animals, 
foraging for themselves as best they could, survived the winter, 
all was well; if they died from starvation, it was an ^^ act of 
God. ' ' We have abandoned the crude practices of our ancestors, 
and now carefully store in barns abundance of provender for 
feeding flocks and herds during winter's rigor. We are amazed 
that our ancestors were so improvident as to gather no winter 
feed for their cattle, while for ours great barns are built and stored 
with provender. By turning cattle to pasture in spring and let- 
ting them forage as best they may until winter we show that all 
the barbaric blood has not yet been eliminated from our veins. If 
the summer rains are timely and abundant, the cattle are well 
nourished on these pastures; if drought prevails they suffer for 
food as surely, and often as severely, as did the live stock of 
England in winter, ages ago. To suffering from scant food there 
is added the heat of ''dog days" and the ever-present annoyance 
of blood-sucking flies. Our stockmen will never be worthy of 
their calling, nor their flocks and herds yield their best returns, 
until ample provision is made against drought-ruined pastures in 
summer. Every argument which stands in favor of storing 
provender for stock in winter holds with equal force for providing 
feed to make good any possible shortage of pastures in summer. 

258. Yields of pasture grass. — At the Pennsylvania Station, i 
Holter studied the yield of a pasture consisting of blue grass and 
white clover. By means of a lawn mower with attachment the 
grass as cut was gathered, with the following yields per acre: 

1 Rept. 1889. 



180 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Yield of pasture grass per acre from May 1 to Oct. 15 inclusive — 
Pennsylvania Station. 



Digestible 
matter. 




Fresh grass 

Total dry matter 

Albuminoid nitrogen -'^> 

Non-albuminoid nitrogen 

Crude fiber 

Nitrogen-free extract 

Ether extract 

Ash 



At the Michigan Station, i Crozier cut the growing timothy from 
a plat of grass eight times during the season, while on another 
plat of the same area the timothy was allowed to make full 
growth and was then cut for hay. It was found that the yield of 
dry matter in the hay was about four times that of the grass which 
was cut eight times. The per cent, of protein in the grass cut 
eight times was about three times that in the once-cut grass. This 
experiment shows that our pastures in their short herbage yield 
a much higher proportion of muscle-making nutrients than is 
obtained from grasses which are allowed to mature, but that much 
the largest returns are secured by allowing them to ripen. (554) 

259. Changes in grass during ripening. — At the Illinois Sta- 
tion, 2 Hunt studied the effects of maturity on the yield and com- 
position of several forage plants. Timothy was examined at four 
periods covering about one month in all, beginning June 25, 
when the plants were in full bloom. The yield of hay and the 
total nutrients per acre for each of the four periods are given in 
the table at the end of this Article. 

It will be seen that, on the whole, there was a steady increase in 
the weight of the crop as the plants progressed toward maturity. 
We observe only a slight increase in the total protein content after 
the first cutting. Between the first and last cuttings the crude 
fiber increased more than 300 pounds and the nitrogen-free extract 
more than 350 pounds, while the ether extract was reduced in 
total quantity as ripening progressed. It appears, then, in this 

1 Bui. 111. * Bui. 5. 



The Grasses^ Fresh and Cared. 



181 



study, that aside from protein, the timothy plant had not elabo- 
rated its full complement of nutrients at the time of blossoming, 
and to secure the largest total quantity of nutrients in the hay we 
must wait until the seeds of this grass are nearly ripe. By so 
doing we gain no protein or ether extract, but a very consider- 
able quantity of crude fiber, which is not valuable, and still more 
nitrogen-free extract, which is an important addition. 

Yield of hay and nutrients from timothy at four periods of growth — 

Illinois Station. 





Stage of develop- 
ment. 


Hay 

per 
acre. 


Total nutrients per acre. 


Date. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 


Ether 
extract. 


Ash. 


June 25 


Full bloom. 


Lbs. 
4,480 

4,320 
5,240 
5,180 


Lbs. 
240 

22.5 
246 
253 


Lbs. 
1,056 

1,155 
1,380 
1,377 


Lbs. 
1,602 

1,663 
1,960 
2,058 


Lbs. 
165 

152 
153 
137 


Lbs. 
224 


July 2 


One-half anthers 
shed 


228 


July 11 
July 23 


Seed in dough.... 
Seed nearly ripe.. 


273 
239 



260. Time to cut grass for hay. — Generally the admonitions are 
for early cutting, and where there is much hay to be gathered, 
work should certainly begin early in order that it be completed 
before the grass seeds are so rij^e as to shell from the heads of the 
late-cut grass. Early-cut hay seems more palatable to stock, and, 
pound for pound, more satisfactory. On the other hand, we can 
secure a considerably larger quantity of the carbohydrates by 
delaying the harvest until the grass seeds are fully formed. In 
the increase of nutrients in the timothy plant up to a late period, 
we have a repetition of what occurs in that other grass, the Indian 
corn plant, in the study of which we have learned that the storage 
of nutrients continues up to the last stage of ripening. (241) 

For the dairy cow and sheep grass should be cut early, since these 
animals do not relish hay that is woody and lacking in aroma, 
as is the case with late-cut hay. For horses and fattening cattle 
the choice of dates for cutting probably falls the other way, being 
in favor of later cutting. These animals subsist mostly on con- 
centrated feed, and hay serves more for "filling," as horsemen 



182 Feedc, and Feeding. 

say. If harvesting is delayed too long, the stems of the grasses 
are tough and stringy, and the seeds shatter from the heads. Such 
hay has little aroma and lacks palatability, if not nutrients. 

Sanborn i conducted trials with early- and late- cut hay for fat- 
tening steers, and found that the late- cut hay gave the best returns. 
The writer, in an unpublished experiment conducted several years 
since, reached the same result. 

261. Points in hay making. — Important as is the subject of hay 
making, there is not much of a deiinite character that can be writ- 
ten concerning it. The widely varying nature of the crops to be 
converted into hay, the dampness or dryness of the soil of the 
meadows, the humidity of the atmosphere, and the intensity and 
continuance of sunlight and heat, are all modifying factors in this 
problem and combine t« keep it one of those arts which cannot be 
definitely discussed in books. Some points of interest and possi- 
ble importance will be here considered. We have drawn largely 
from Storer, 2 whose classic work on agriculture should be read 
by all. 

262. The aroma of hay. — Though an unweighable quantity, the 
aroma of grass has real value in rendering hay more palatable. 
When the sun dissipates the dew from the drying grass in the 
meadow we detect the escaping aroma, because the dsw in rising 
carries some of it into the atmosphere. Here is one reason why 
hay should not remain scattered over the meadow at night. If 
new-mown hay lies for a time in the sunlight, the bleaching whicli 
we observe indicates that chemical changes are taking place within 
the grass stems and leaves, and such changes are not of advantage. 
Green- colored, sweet- smelling hay is really the best, and prudent 
stockmen in securing provender will not overlook such seemingly 
small points as preserving the aroma and preventing bleaching. 

263. Changes during hay curing. — Grass stems remain alive, in 
a certain sense, for some time after they have been severed by the 
mower, and the leaves while succulent and green continue to 
exhale moisture in a natural way. If grasses whose leaves are 
still fresh are gathered into bundles so the leaves are not at once 



» Rept. New Hamp. Bd. Agr., 1880, 

^ Agriculture in Some of its Relations with Chemistry. 



The Grasses, Fresh and Cared. 183 

witliered, the leaves will continue to draw water from the steins, 
and in so doing rid them of moisture and hasten the drying grass 
toward the condition of hay. In this fact we have an explana- 
tion of one of the advantages obtained in curing grass in cocks or 
bundles rather than by spreading it out thinly in the hot sun. 
Hay which is cocked in the afternoon entraj^s much warm air, 
and the mass remains in a condition favorable to the transpiration 
of moisture during the night. The heat yielded by the plant in 
carrying on its life functions, and the warm air entrapped by grass 
gathered in the afternoon, should not be confused with that which 
may develop in partially cured or damp hay through fermenta- 
tion. When hay that has been cocked for a time is exposed to 
the air in flakes, the moisture which has been diffused evenly 
through the mass is yielded up rapidlj^ and such material is soon 
dried. While hay can be made without going through the sweat- 
ing process in the cock, it is usually much better because of 
having undergone such action. Hay put into the barn when it 
is so dry that it will not pack well is not in first-class condition. 
It should be mowed away with just that amount of moisture which 
allows it to settle compactly when treaded down. 

264. Treatment of hay. — Salt and lime scattered over hay when 
it is put into the mow tend to ijrevent fermentation and check the 
growth of molds and mildews. Salt renders hay more palatable. 
These materials are not essentials in hay making, but are helpful 
when partially cured hay is being stored during bad weather. 
Damp hay may be improved by placing it in alternate layers with 
dry straw; the straw absorbs moisture from the hay and so 
improves in quality. It also imbibes some of its aroma, so that 
cattle will moie readily eat both straw and hay. 

Hay from the second-growth grasses or aftermath is rich in 
nutrients, but it comes at a time when the ground is often damp, 
the days short and the sun's heat weak. This unfortunate com- 
bination renders the curing of aftermath into hay difficult and 
the product usually of less value than first- crop hay. Cured under 
favorable conditions, aftermath hay is an excellent article for 
winter feeding. 

New-made hay is laxative, and should not be fed to work 
horses or driving horses, since their flesh becomes soft through its 



184 



Feeds and, Feeding. 



use. Not until the sweating process lias been completed in the 
mow and the mass cooled off can new-crop hay be safely fed. 

265. Dried versus green grass. — At the Pennsylvania Station, * 
Armsby tested dried and fresh grass for cows in the following 
manner: Short grass on the college lawn, cut with a lawn-mower, 
was divided into two portions, one of which was fed to a cow in 
the fresh stage, the other half being dried over a steam boiler 
and fed in turn to the same cow. 

This investigator had i)reviously conducted an experiment at 
the Wisconsin Station in which grass from nine to ten inches in 
height was used. Here half the grass was fed fresh, and the 
other half, cut at the same time, was dried in the sun and fed to 
the same cow. The yield of milk and butter-fat in these tests 
was as follows: 

Daily yield of milJc and fat with cows fed green and dried grass — 
Pennsylvania and Wisconsin Stations. 



Station. 


Green 


grass. 


Dried grass. 


Milk. 


Fat. 


Milk. 


Fat. 


Pen n.sy 1 van ia 


Lbs. 

26.01 
16.98 


Lbs. 

1.08 
.92 


Lbs. 

25.27 
17.81 


Lbs. 
1.06 


Wisconsin 


1.00 






Average 


21.5 


1.00 


21.54 


1.03 







These results are practically equal, showing that grass when 
dried in the best possible manner yields as much nutriment as 
will the same grass when fresh. In practice it is impossible 
to dry grass or other forage plants in such a manner that the 
product will equal the same plants in a fresh condition. In 
hay-making more or less of the finer portions of the forage plants 
are broken off and lost. Again, continued exposure of plants to 
the sun reduces their palatability by bleaching and the loss of 
aromatic compounds. Dew works injury, and rain carries away 
the more soluble portions. Thus, while dried forage may theo- 
retically equal the fresh substance, in practice it falls short, the 
difference in value being determined by the circumstances con- 
trolling the harvest. 



Kept. 1888. 



Tlie Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 185 

266. Losses due to weathering. — Stockliardt^ cured one sample 
of meadow liay in three days and left another in the field for 
thirteen days in alternate wet and dry weather. Analysis showed 
that the weathered hay lost 12.5 per cent, of its total dry sub- 
stance, represent ino- one-fourth of its original nutritive value. 
Marcker^ calculated the loss of meadow-hay exposed through a 
prolonged and heavy rain as 18.4 and 3 7.6 per cent, of the dry sub- 
stance. This heavy withdrawal of the soluble portion of the 
hay leaves more woody fiber and indigestible matter proi^ortion- 
ately, which renders the hay more difficult of digestion. Then, 
too, the aroma of forage will be dissipated by exi)0sure. 

II. The Common Grass Flants for Pasture and Boiling. 

267. Kentucky blue grass. — This grass, often called ''June 
grass," is found everywhere in the Northeastern states. By its 
persistence it often drives out red clover and timothy as meadow 
crops, and holds in pastures, open woodlands and roadsides against 
all other claimants. As shown by the table, this grass is the 
richest in digestible protein and ether extract of any in the list, 
a finding borne out by the experience of stockmen. The char- 
acteristics of Kentucky blue grass exhibited in its habits of growth 
should be understood by the stockman to guide him in wisely 
using it. Because its seed ripens with the commencement of sum- 
mer, Kentucky blue grass prepares for that event by gathering 
much of the nutriment necessary in seed production the preceding 
fall. With the coming of spring it pushes forward vigorously, 
and early in May the fields are covered with a dense carpet of 
nutritious grass. With the shooting of the grass stems for seed- 
bearing the last of May, the energies of the plant reach their cul- 
mination and there is a cessation of growth. The blue grass has 
entei'cd a period of rest, and for a few months there is little evi- 
dence of life. If at this time drought occurs, the pastures turn 
bi'own and the plants api^ear to be dead or dying. With the 
coming of the fall rains all is changed and a green cari)et again 
covers the pastures. The blue-grass plants have passed the rest- 
ing period and are again gathering nourishment for the next 
summer's seed bearing. 



* Wolff", Farm Foods, English edition, p. 155. *IjOC. cit. 



186 Feeds and Feeding. 

The prudent stockcian, recognizing these habits of growth, with 
alternate abundance and scarcity iu food supply, realizes that he 
must not rely entirely upon blue-grass pasture for a uniform sup- 
ply of nutriment for his cattle throughout the whole season. He 
stocks the pastures lightly in spring so that the overplus herbage 
of May and June may remain to be drawn upon during the dor- 
mant period of midsummer, or, stocking his pastures more heav- 
ily, he anticipates the midsummer shortage by providing a liberal 
supply of silage, green clover, green corn, or other forage crops. 
Knowing the characteristics of his pastures and acting upon this 
knowledge, his stock suffers little or no loss from the usual mid- 
summer shortage, but grows steadily throughout the season. 

Kentucky blue grass is primarily a pasture grass and should 
always be regarded as such. The small yield of hay from this 
grass is of fair quality both as to protein and carbohydrates, while 
it is quite rich in ether extract. 

268. Timothy or herd's grass. — This common hay plant of the 
Northeastern states is successfully grown as far west as ISTcbraska, 
and Sanborn reports large yields at the Utah Station. ^ Analysis 
shows that timothy hay varies in composition, especially in pro- 
tein, according to the soil on which it is grown and the amount 
and character of the fertilizers used. Soils enriched by manure 
yield hay carrying more protein than is found in that produced 
on lands of low fertility. AVith its stiff, woody stems and few 
leaves the timothy plant cures rapidly into hay. Its character- 
istic appearance, which easily distinguishes it from the hay of 
other species, adds to its commercial value. Timothy seeds are 
large and easily recognized, and as they are produced in abun- 
dance and hold their vitality well, they aid this grass in holding 
favor with the farmer. Timothy hay is usually free from dust, 
is clean and rarely attacked by molds. It is relished by horses 
which secure most of their nourishment from oats or other grain. 
All these qualities combine to render hay from the timothy i)lant 
a favorite with both grower and buyer. 

"While timothy meets quite fully the demands of city condi- 
tions, it should not occupy an important i)lace on well-managed 

» Kept. 1892. 



Tlie Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 187 

stock farms, for the yield of forage is too small to warrant adher- 
ence to this crop alone for farm -horse feed. Fodder corn, hay 
from the cereals, and bright straw are substitutes that may be 
fed with economy and satisfaction to all horses not required for 
road work. 

Timothy meadows afford but little aftermath, and if pastured 
at all closely this grass is easily destroyed. Red clover should be 
grown with timothy, if possible, for the combination furnishes a 
superior hay both in quantity and quality for many purposes. 
When grown together, the hay produced the first season after 
seeding will consist largely of clover. Many of the clover roots 
die at the end of this season, and the nutriment from these 
nourishes the timothy plants, which spring into ascendency the 
second season, yielding a hay in which clover forms the smaller 
portion. (478) 

269. Orchard grass. — This grass starts very early in the spring 
and ripens about two weeks in advance of timothy. For this rea- 
son it associates well with red clover. Hay from orchard grass 
is inclined to be harsh, woody and lacking in aroma, and is not 
particularly relished by stock. These defects can be partially 
overcome by cutting the grass very early. Orchard grass does 
not form an even, dense sod, but grows in tufts or tussocks, for 
which reason it should not be sown alone, but with other grasses 
and with clovers. Mixed with other grasses, orchard grass serves 
a useful purpose in pastures, and under favorable conditions will 
hold its own indefinitely. 

Tracy, of the Mississippi Station, i rejiorts orchard grass as 
making a better winter growth on heavy clay soils than any other 
species tested. In that region it commences growth in February 
and yields hay in May. 

270. Redtop. — This widely disseminated grass of several spe- 
cies is especially valuable on damp, low lands, where it forms 
a close turf, fui-nishing exceHent pasture and a valuable hay, 
composed of fine stems and rather numerous leaves. Eedtop 
appears indigenous to Korthei'u meadows and should be more 
generally grown wherever the land is suitable. 

1 Bui. 20. 



188 Feeds and Feeding. 

Tracy, of the Mississippi Station/ found no better grass for 
marsliy lands and seepy hillsides. 

271. Mixed permanent grasses. — Nature rarely covers any 
large area with a single species of vegetation, and it is better to 
humor her by having several varieties of grass and clover in the 
same meadow or pasture than growing a single one, no matter how 
valuable. For stock feeding at the North, a mixture of redtop, 
timothy and orchard grass with one or two kinds of clover will 
give a larger yield of aromatic, palatable hay than is possible 
with a single variety. There are several other varieties of grasses 
which will thrive in special locations. The stockman should 
experiment freely with the more promising varieties, that he may 
learn by direct exi^eriment which combinations are best suited to 
his condition. 

272. Hungarian grass, miflet. — The millets, which are annual 
grasses, consist of many races and varieties mixed in hopeless 
confusion. German millet and Hungarian grass are the millets 
commonly grown in the Northern states. Sown in early summer, 
they thrive remarkably in hot and even dry weather, reaching 
the harvest period in August or September. In order to produce 
hay of fine quality, a liberal allowance of seed should be sown. 
With thin seeding millet stems are coarse and reed-like, forming 
a hay of low quality. All forms of millet grass designed for 
hay should be cut just as the j)lant is coming into blossom, to 
avoid the formation of hard seeds which are indigestible by 
horses and cattle. Hay from thickly-seeded millet, if cut early, 
is useful for cattle and sheep feeding. If given to horses, it 
should be fed very sparingly and under close supervision. (198) 

For millet-hay injurious to horses, see Article 482. 

At the Massachusetts Station, 2 Brooks, experimenting with 
Japanese millet, grew crops in which the plants reached a height 
of six feet, yielding from twelve to eighteen tons of green forage 
per acre. Millet forage was much relished by dairy cows, prov- 
ing superior to flint corn fodder. 

273. Grasses at the South. — In the past the Southern planter 
has despised grasses because they seriously interfered with the 

» Bill. 2 J. 2 Rept. 1895. 



The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 189 

cultivation of the cotton crop. Now that mixed fiirming is gain- 
ing friends in that region, some of the many grasses which grow 
readily there are receiving attention, only a few of which can be 
mentioned. 

Teosinte is a giant grass, somewhat resembling the sorghum 
plant. Stubbs, of the Louisiana Station, ^ reports a yield of over 
fifty tons of green teosinte forage per acre. This plant is too 
tropical in character to have a forage value outside a belt border- 
ing the gulf. 

Millo-maize is a variety of sorghum which succeeds in the south- 
ern portion of our country. At the Louisiana Station, 2 a yield of 
thirteen tons of cured forage and thirty-nine bushels of seed was 
obtained from one acre. Bermuda grass is now common in the 
South, spreading by both seed and creeping stems. Tracy, of the 
Mississippi Station, ^ reports a yield of from two to four tons of 
Bermuda hay per acre in two cuttings. Bermuda grass is useful 
for forage and pastui"e, its sod resembling in some measure that 
formed by Kentucky blue grass at the North. 

Numerous grasses can be grown with profit at the South. * With 
a large list of true grasses and legumes available for forage pur- 
poses, there seems no reason why the Southern states should not 
become a favorite region for stock growing. 

274. Sorghum. — The sorghum plant, being more difficult of 
cultivation in the humid regions than Indian corn, gives way to 
the latter in the production of green forage. At the Pennsylvania 
Station, 5 Armsby, studying this plant for soiling purposes, con- 
cludes that it has no special value for that state. Amber-cane 
sorghum gave a yield of but little over ten tons of green forage 
per acre, while dent corn under similar conditions returned from 
ten to fifteen tons. In the semi-arid region of the Southwest, 
sorghum grows with great vigor, w ithstanding drought and diying 
winds remarkably w^ell. Because of these characteristics and the 
abundant nutriment contained in stems, leaves and seed heads, 
the sorghum plant is destined to occupy a prominent place in the 

1 Bui. 19. 

2 Bui. 22. 
s Bui. 20. 

« Farmers' Bui. 18, U. S. Dept. Agr. 
• Kept. 1889. 



190 Feeds and Feeding. 

agriculture of this district, fm-nisliiug green forage to stock dur- 
ing shortage of pastures in summer and fall, and the best of dry- 
fodder in winter. (194) 

275. Dangers from second-growth sorghum. — The agricultural 
press reports cattle dying suddenly after eating very small quanti- 
ties of second -growth sorghum. Coburni quotes- Pritchard, the 
Kansas state veterinarian, as saying: '' Second -growth sorghum 
under certain conditions is very destructive indeed to cattle, small 
quantities killing them almost instantly. . . Just what this 
destructive agent is I am unable to say." In the same report ref- 
erence is made to Kafiir corn causing the same trouble. Tracy * 
reports that second-growth '^ chicken corn," a variety of sorghum 
found in the Gulf states, when eaten by cattle, sometimes pro- 
duces fatal results within a few minutes. He says: *'It seems 
to affect only certain animals, or perhaps only certain plants 
produce the ill effects, as generally only a few animals in a herd 
are killed, and these are commonly found near together." No 
one knows why second-growth sorghum should cause trouble in 
the way noted, and no remedy is known. Prevention is the only 
means at hand. 

276. Sorghum hay. — In the semi-arid region of the Southwest, 
the sorghum plant possesses many advantages for producing a 
coarse hay of high feeding value. In parts of Kansas and Texas, 
stockmen plant the seed by means of grain drills; at other times 
it is sown broadcast. Sorghum may also be planted in wide drills 
and cultivated like corn. This giant grass, when sown broadcast, 
is cut with a mower, and after partially drying is gathered into 
windrows, and finally into bunches of considerable size, where it 
remains until required for feeding, or the bunches are gathered 
into stacks. 

When planted in drills, sorghum should be harvested in shocks, 
as is common with Indian corn. The stems of the saccharine 
sorghums are rich in sugar and are eagerly consumed by farm 
stock in winter. The leaves of all varieties of sorghum form a 
bright, palatable, nutritious hay, free from dust and very usefid. 

1 Rept. Kan. Bd. A^r., Sept. 1894. 

2 Bui. 20, Miss. Expt. Sta. 



The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 191 

for feeding horses especially, also for sheep and cattle. The sor- 
ghum plant may be successfully used for silage. 

277. The cereals as forage plants. — Wheat, oats, barley and 
rye i)lauts may serve for pasture and hay production in many 
cases with iDrofit. These grasses, for such they are, may be sown 
at almost any time during the growing season, and will soon cover 
the ground with a carpet of green, affording much nutritious 
pasture, where otherwise nothing of value would be produced. 

Eye sown in August will furnish pasture, three or four weeks 
later, that will continue useful until winter sets in, and is again 
available as soon as vegetation starts in the spring. Stewart ^ 
states that fifty sheep may be continuously pastured in summer 
upon six acres of land sown to rye the previous fall, if, in addi- 
tion to the pasture, they are fed a little linseed meal and corn. 

Green rye, when used for soiling or pasturing cows, has the 
reputation of imparting a bad flavor to milk. This trouble can 
usually be averted by turning the cows to pasture, immediately 
after milking, for two or three hours, after which time other feed 
should be given. 

Barley furnishes an excellent pasture in a short time after 
seeding, and yields liberally of green forage. Sown in fields 
from which a grain crop has been harvested, barley will grow two 
or three feet in height and may even head out before heavy fall 
frosts. At the Alabama (Canebrake) Station 2 a field seeded in 
the fall with barley yielded 23,100 pounds of green forage by the 
following March, Winter wheat can likewise be used for pastiu'e 
and yields a nutritious herbage suitable for soiling. In southern 
Kansas winter wheat pastured by cows in mild weather is said to 
impart a gniss flavor to what otherwise would grade as winter 
butter. 

278. Oats or barley and peas. — The value of oats and peas 
and barley and ijeajs for forage croi)S has been tested by Roberts 
and Clinton at the Cornell Station. ^ They write: "Ranking 
next to corn as a forage crop and a close second, comes oats and 
peas. In the two years in which we have been conducting experi- 

» "Feeding Animals." 
* Bui. 9. 
3 Bui. 135. 



102 Feeds and Feeding. 

ments in the production of forage this combination has proven 
itself well worthy of a place on every farm where stock is kept. 
It is valuable either for pasture, for cutting as a soiling crop, or 
when allowed to mature it may be cured for hay, making a most 
valuable article. When planted in succession of about two weeks, 
the first planting being as early in the spring as conditions will 
permit, a succession of highly nutritious forage is produced which 
is greatly relished by stock. If a more general use was made of 
oats and peas for summer feeding it would greatly decrease the 
expense of the production of milk and the cost of maintaining 
cattle and economize land very materially. A. highly nutritious 
forage would be obtained, rich in protein and furnishing nearly a 
balanced ration for milch cows. A large amount can be produced 
per acre and it may be grown from early spring to late fall. A 
slight freeze does not affect it, and it may be sown in the spring 
before frosts are over, and the late forage frequently remains in 
good condition until December. The oats and peas at this Station 
sown August 1, 1896, were in good condition for feeding until a 
severe freeze on the night of December 2 cut them down. For 
late forage, however, barley and peas are recommended instead 
of oats and peas. For sowing any time after July 1st, substitute 
barley for oats. The reason for this is that in late summer barley 
makes more rapid growth, is less likely to attacks of rust and 
other fungous diseases than are oats." 

279. The small grains as hay crops. — Wheat, oats and barley, 
used as grasses, are capable of producing excellent hay if har- 
vested at the proper time. Barley constitutes the common hay 
crop of the Pacific Slope outside the alfalfa region, and there is no 
reason why this plant, as well as oats and wheat, should not be 
employed as a hay producer in other portions of the country. If 
the meadows fail to yield the usual supply of hay, the loss can be 
made good by having recourse to small grain grown as a substi- 
tute. When used for hay i>roduction, grasses from the cereal 
grains should be cut when the seed is in the early milk stage, at 
which time the stems and leaves may be easily cured into bright, 
dust-free hay of a quality well suited for feeding horses or dairy 
cows. 



The Grasses, Fresh and Cured. 193 

Crops of the cereals which have made too heavy a growth of 
straw because of wet weather usually lodge badly, and when this 
occurs the yield of grain is unsatisfactory. Such overgrown grain 
can be converted into hay with more profit than would result from 
a light crop of poor grain, which costs much to harvest. 

280. Straw. — While primarily used for bedding purposes, the 
softer kinds, especially oat and barley straw, are serviceable for 
feeding purposes. In Canada and England chaffed straw is com- 
monly mixed with pulped roots and the mass allowed to soften 
and even ferment slightly; thus prepared, cattle readily consume 
large quantities with satisfactory returns. Oat straw, because of 
its nutrients and its soft, pliable stems, leads for feeding purposes, 
with barley following. Wheat straw, being coarse and stiff, is 
not as satisfactory, though some will be eaten by cattle. Eye 
straw is woody, harsh and should be used for bedding pui-poses. 

281. Chaff. — Wheat and oat chaff contain more protein than 
straw, and because of their fineness and softness they are useful in 
feeding stock. Often with chaff there are found light and broken 
kernels which have escaped the threshers; by these the value of 
chaft', so called, is materially increased. 

282. Flax straw. — Where flax is grown for the seed, the straw 
or haulm is generally wasted. Stockmen who have fed flax straw 
to horses and cattle report satisfactory results from its use. Fre- 
quently some flax seed is left in the straw, which increases its 
value. There seems no foundation for the statement that the fiber 
of flax straw forms balls of indigestible matter in the stomachs of 
farm animals. It is no doubt digested the same as other fibrous 
matter — the lint of cotton, for example. Some flax straw may 
always be fed, and during times of scarcity it will prove a boon 
to the stockman who overcomes his prejudice and supplies it freely 
to his hungry animals. 

283. Ergot. — At times the grains of the rye plant and seeds of 
the grasses are attacked by a fungus called ergot which causes 
them to become several times their normal size. Ergot grains 
are usually spur-like in form, quite rigid, and nearly black in 
color. Being quite large on rye, ergot grains may be detected 
when the observer is some distance away. On the heads of the 

13 



194 Feeds and Feeding. 

smaller grasses they cau only be found by close inspection, but 
this is not difficult when one is familiar with their appearance. 
When eaten by animals ergot may produce convulsions, paralysis 
of the hind limbs, slowness of heart action and death by exhaus- 
tion. With pregnant animals in an advanced period of gestation 
it may produce abortion. Epidemics of abortion in cows have 
been traced to this cause, and veterinary surgeons employ ergot 
to expedite languid labor. Ergotism shows itself most commonly 
in deranged nutrition; the limbs of the animal affected turn black 
and shrivel, dying as though attacked by dry gangrene. ^ 

There have been several serious outbreaks of this disease in 
the last form noted in different parts of the United States, gener- 
ally in the Western states. Much needless excitement has been 
caused in some instances through reports current in the press that 
the ailment was the dreaded contagious '^foot-and-mouth" dis- 
ease. Only cattle have so far been attacked. Horses, it is said, 
reject hay containing ergot. 

The observant stockman can usually forestall all trouble from 
ergot by examining the grass heads in the meadows and pastures 
immediately before haying and avoiding grass carrying the fungus. 
A little study will enable one to detect ergot grains even on grasses 
as fine and small as blue grass and redtop, while they are seen 
without difficulty on heads of timothy and wild rye. 

Ergot poisoning generally makes its appearance in late winter 
or early spring with cattle in poor condition that are subsisting 
wholly or largely upon hay. It announces its i^rcsence by a dis- 
eased condition of the limbs, the extremities of which are cold 
and almost lifeless. The trouble may continue until the hoofs 
slough off with dry gangrene. Cattle that are affected should 
have their feed changed at once to remove the cause of the trouble; 
they should be warmly housed and given a variety of nourish- 
ing feed. 

Stalker 2 affirms that cattle fed corn are never poisoned by 
ergot, — probably because this feed is nourishing and furnishes 
an abundance of heat to the body. (177) 

* For account of ergot and ergotism see article Ergota, National Dis- 
pensatory; also Hi)ecial Ueport on Diseases of Cattle and Cattle Feeding, 
liepoit Bureau Animal Industry, lS9o-G. U. S. Dept. Agr., AVashiugtou. 

2 Bui. 17, Iowa Sta. 



CHAPTEE Xn. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOE GEEEN POEAGE AND HAY. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot^ 
ash. 



Oreen forage. 
Red clover at different 

stages 

Alsike, bloom 

Crimsoa clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja bean 

Hay and straiv. 

Red clover, medium 

Red clover, mammoth 

Alsike clover 

AVhite clover 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja-bean straw 

Pea-vine straw 



Lbs. 

29.2 
25 2 
19.1 
28.2 
16.4 
24.9 

84.7 
78.8 
90.3 
90.3 
90.4 
91.6 
89.3 
89.9 
8G.4 



Lbs. 

2.9 
2.7 
2.4 
3.9 
1.8 
3.2 

6.8 

5.7 

8.4 

11.5 

10.5 

11.0 

10.8 

2.3 

4.3 



Lbs. 

14.8 
13.1 

9.1 
12.7 

8.7 
11.0 

35.8 
32.0 
42.5 
42.2 
34.9 
39.6 
38.6 
40.0 
32.3 



Lbs. 

0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 
0.2 
0.5 

1.7 
1.9 
1.5 
1.5 
1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
0.8 



Lbs. 

5.3 
4.4 
4.3 

7.2 
2.7 
2.9 

20.7 
22.3 
23.4 
27.5 
20.5 
21.9 
19.5 
17.5 
14.3 



Lbs. 

1.3 
1.1 
1.3 
1.3 
1.0 
1.5 

3.8 
5.5 
6.7 
5.2 
4.0 
5.1 
5.2 
4.0 
3.5 



Lbs. 

4.6 
2.0 
4.9 
5.6 
3.1 
5.3 

22.0 
12.2 
22*3 
18.1 
13.1 
16.8 
14.7 
13.2 
10.2 



284. Concerning legumes. — The prominent characteristic of 
the true grasses, including the corn plant, is their large content 
of carbohydrates with a meager amount of i:)rotein5 in the legumes 
we have a relatively large proportion of protein to carbohydrates 
and fat. Each of these great groups of agricultural plants, then, 
presents to the feeder what the other lacks, and so are comple- 
mentary to each other. 

The highest use of the corn plant is bearing grain, with a large 
secondary place in supplying forage. In the legumes we have 
for the most part forage plants only, the seeds being generally too 
small to be useful for food, though beans and peas are an excep- 
tion. Another marked difference between the legumes and the 
grasses, including the cereals, is their after or residual effect upon 



196 



Feeds and Feeding. 



the soil. When the latter have been grown for a period upon a 
tract they have exhausted its fertility in some measure. Where 
clover is grown, although much fertility is removed with the crop, 
the land still seems in excellent heart for other crops which follow. 

The discovery that the free nitrogen of the air can be fixed by 
the legumes and turned over to the soil, thus securing without 
cost to the farmer one of the most precious elements so largely 
required by plants, has at last explained what was so long a 
mystery, and should make us doubly appreciative of these most 
useful plants. 

In the northeastern United States the clovers are the commonly 
cultivated leguminous plants. In the southern portion of our 
country, crimson and Japan clover, the cowpea, soja bean and 
other legumes flourish, while the whole western half of the United 
States is served by that wonderful representative, the alfalfa or 
lucern plant. 

285. Red clover. — This plant is found on every well-regulated 
farm in the northeastern United States, where with grasses it 
stands proiniuent in rotation with corn and the cereals. Eed 
clover serves for both pasture and hay purposes, yielding large 
returns. 

At the Wisconsin Station, ^ Woll, cutting clover three times 
during the season, secured the results given below: 

Yield of three crops of red clover — Wisconsin Station. 



Date of cutting. 



First crop, May 29 ... 
Second crop, July 16 
Third crop, Sept. 1... 



Green 
clover. 



Lbs. 

29,220 

16,020 

7,221 



Dry 

matter. 



Per cent. 

8.2 
22.5 

27.5 



Dry 

matter. 



Lbs. 

2,402 
3,509 
1,986 



Here is a yield of over twenty-five tons of green forage per 
acre, which may be regarded as representing the maximum 
return for this crop. From one-half to two-thirds this amount 
may be relied upon by the stockman as a fair crop under practical 
conditions. 



Rept. 1889. 



Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 



197 



It will be seen tliat llie first crop contained but 8.2 per cent, of 
dry matter, or less than is found in skim milk. It is evident that 
this crop was cut some time before it had reached the proper 
maturity for making hay. Here is an explanation why early-cut 
green clover, when used for soiling cattle, often gives such un- 
satisfactory returns; such forage is mostly water, and the cattle 
receiving it cannot consume enough to gain the nourishment they . 
require. The total dry matter of the three crops amounted to 
nearly four tons — a most satisfactory showing. 

286. Development of nutrients in the clover plant. — Hunt, of 
the Illinois Station, ^ has arranged the results of studies relating 
to the development of the clover plant for hay production, con- 
ducted by himself and others, in tables, portions of which are 
here presented: 

Yield of hail, ^^^^ nutrients in the same, from the clover plant cut at 
different stages — various Stations. 



Stage of growth at time of 
cutting. 


Fresh 
sub- 
stance. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Ether 
ex- 
tract. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 


Ash. 


Medium red clover. 
Illinois (Hunt). 
Fu 1 1 1d1 ooni 


Lbs. 

3, GOO 
3,260 


Lbs. 

400 
379 


Lbs. 

197 
156 


Lbs. 

660 
672 


Lbs. 

1,052 
1,024 


Lbs. 
217 


Three-fourths heads dead 


198 


Pennsylvania (Jordan). 
Heads in bloom 


4,210 
4,141 
3,915 


539 
469 
421 


116 

100 

94 


1,033 
1,248 
1,260 


1,731 
1,379 
1,378 


260 


Some heads dead 


226 


Heads all dead 


208 






Connecticut (Atwater). 
Just before bloom 


1,018 

i,<;4i 

2,0r,4 
1,802 


198 
189 
230 
158 


24 
33 
31 
36 


384 
390 
523 
484 


664 
682 
837 
746 


115 


Full bloom 


107 


Nearly out of bloom 


129 


Nearly ripe 


99 






Mmnmoih red clover. 

Illinois (Hunt). 
Beginning to bloom 


4,340 
5,440 
4,213 


443 
519 
386 


237 
173 


971 
1,404 
1,110 


1,317 
1,612 
1,504 


2.52 


Full bloom 


266 


Nearly out of bloom 


218 







We observe that clover gave the largest returns of protein 
when the heads were in full bloom or just past that stage. When 
the crop stood until some of the heads were dead or later, the 

1 Bui. 5. 



198 Feeds and Feeding. 

protein content was materially reduced, and with the heads all 
dead it was still further diminished. There was also a diminution 
in the ether extract and ash after the full-bloom stage of develop- 
ment was passed. The nitrogen-free extract, carrying the most 
valuable carbohydrates, was also materially lessened after the 
plant had passed the full-bloom stage. On the other hand, the 
crude fiber, which renders hay woody and is the least valuable 
portion, was increased in the period between full bloom and the 
time when the heads were all dead. Probably much of the loss 
in nutrients at this time was through the leaves and finer parts of 
the plant tixlling off and wasting on the ground. 

287. The proper time for cutting clover. — The table just given 
throws much light on this important topic, and clearly points to 
full bloom as theoretically the best time for cutting clover for hay. 
If cut before bloom the amount of water in the crop is so excess- 
ive that the process of hay making is slow and unsatisfactory. If 
delayed until the blossom heads are all brown, the conversion into 
hay is much simplified, for the plants have then parted with much 
of the water they carry while developing, and are consequently 
easily dried. But such hay, as shown by the table, has lost much 
of its valuable protein and carbohydrates. Practice and theory, 
then, combine in setting the period when one-third of the clover 
heads are turning brown, as the best, all factors considered, for 
hay making. 

288. Methods of clover hay making. — Hay making from clover 
has fallen into three lines, each of which has its advantages accord- 
ing to locality and weather conditions. Under the first system 
the clover is mown as soon as the dew is off, and by frequent ted- 
dings and turnings, aided by bright, hot sunshine, it is ready for 
raking in the afternoon, and housing before five o' clock, at which 
time the gathering dew shuts off further operations. Under this 
system the clover plant must be well ripened, indeed past its 
prime, for hay, and the weather very favorable, if good results 
are to be secured. 

The second system differs from the first only in cutting the 
clover so late in the afternoon that the dew does not materially 
affect the plants because they have as yet wilted but little. The 



Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 



199 



following day liay making proceeds as rapidly as possible, the 
crop being placed under cover before niglit-fall. 

Under the third system clover is cut after the dew is off and 
remains without tedding until afternoon, when it is gathered into 
windrows, and from these into bunches or cocks before the dew 
falls, which stand several days, undergoing a sweating process. 
After sweating they are opened in flakes, which give off their 
moisture rapidly, and the material is soon ready for the barn. 
Hay curing in cocks is often protected by muslin covers or caj^s, 
wliich are useful in protecting the bunches from rain. 

Whichever system is adopted, too great care cannot be exer- 
cised in preserving the finer parts of the plant, wliich are liable 
to be wasted, leaving only the coarse, woody stems to be gathered. 
Under all systems of hay production the clover i^lant should not 
be placed in barn or stack when carrying external moisture, either 
dew or rain. This foreign moisture appears to be more detri- 
mental in the curing of hay than the natural sap of the plant. 

289. Losses in curing. — According to Wolff, ^ from twenty-five 
to forty i^er cent, of the dry substance of clover hay can be ex- 
tracted by cold water. Eitthausen cured one sample of clover 
hay quickly and allowed another to lie a fortnight in the rain. 
The composition of the two samples was as follows: 

Composition of good clover hay and that injured by rain — Ritthausen. 





Not rained, 
upon. 


Rained 
upon. 


Water 


Per cent. 

16.0 
14.6 
2-5.3 
36.1 
8.0 


Per cent. 
16 


Protein 


15.8 


Crude fiber 


37.4 


Nitrogeu-free and ether extracts 


23.4 


Ash 


7.5 







We see that the sample rained upon contained more protein than 
did the one which was well preserved. Evidently much more of 
the nitrogen-free extract than protein is removed by soaking the 
hay with water. This explains the fact so often noticed in prac- 

^ Farm Foods, Cousins, p. 160. 



200 Feeds and Feeding. 

tice, tliat clover liay apparently rich in protein may liave little 
value owing to the large quantity of crude fiber and the small 
amount of nitrogen-free extract it contains. Contrary to the show- 
ing made above, a large portion of protein is often removed from 
hay when soaked by rain. (304) 

290. Spontaneous combustion. — It seems beyond question that 
barns containing clover hay and stacks of the same are occasion- 
ally consumed by fire originating through spontaneous combus- 
tion. The subject though an old one is still involved in mystery. 
Cohn, of Breslau, ^ considers that spontaneous combustion in hay 
is produced through the action of a mould fungus. 

Eeviewing the many exi^eriences reported, 2 it seems that there 
is danger from spontaneous combustion only in seasons when the 
clover plant contains an unusual amount of moisture at haying 
time, or when the hay material carries to stack or barn more or 
less water foreign to it, i. e., rain or dew. 

291. Use of clover hay. — Clover hay is not usually considered a 
satisfactory roughage for the horse, the dust it carries proving 
very detrimental to that animal. A limited amount of good 
clover hay may, however, be fed to horses of all kinds with favor- 
able results. 

For the cow there is no better roughage than good clover hay. 
It furnishes the large amount of protein and ash essential to milk, 
and is palatable and much relished. With well-cured clover 
hay forming one-half or two-thirds of the roughage of the ration, 
the dairyman is able to cut down the allowance of concentrated 
feed, thus reducing the cost of the ration. (653) For growing 
calves and young stock clover hay is most important. If it is more 
essential one place than another, probably the shepherd has first 
claim to clover hay, for his animals of all degrees will not give 
as tiivorable returns from any other form of roughage. 

For soiling purposes clover holds an iini:)ortant place, since the 
crop is available early in the season and is highly relished by 
cattle. The writer secured a yield of clover used for soiling pur- 
poses of 27,000 pounds per acre in three cuttings. (3G5) At 

> Veterinary .Journal, 31, p. 810. 

2 See various articles in Breeder's Gazette, 1889. 



Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 201 

the Peniisylvania Station, ^ yields of six to seven tons in one case 
and over tliirteen tons in another are reported. 

For pigs, clover pasture serves an excellent purpose, building 
good bone and a framework capable of taking on fat rapidly when 
the i^eriod of receiving concentrated food arrives. We can find no 
records of the yields of clover fields when devoted to the pastur- 
age of swine. Our Stations should report experiments on this 
point. In feeding green clover one should always have in mind 
its extreme succulence, and that the quantity which the animal 
is capable of consuming may not contain the requisite nourish- 
ment if the plants are very succulent. 

Bloat or hoven menaces cattle and sheep pastured on the clover 
field. To avoid this the cattle should not be turned to j)asture 
while very hungry or before the dew has risen. Further, some 
dry forage, such as hay or straw, should be placed in feed racks 
in the pasture. To this cattle and sheep will resort when threat- 
ened with bloat. It is said that if cattle and sheep can have 
access to dry roughage while feeding on pasture, they will not 
suffer from this ailment. 

292. Mammoth clover. — The distinctive characteristics of mam- 
moth clover are its rank growth, coarse stems, and the feature of 
blooming two or three weeks later than the medium variety. This 
variety yields but one cutting during the season, and because 
of this the field is frequently used for pasture for several weeks 
in the spring. After removing the stock the plants shoot up 
and soon are ready for the mower. Wallace ^' recommends that 
medium and mammoth clover seed be sown in equal proportions, 
together with grasses for pasture, holding that since the mammoth 
variety blooms later, there is more nearly a succession of good 
forage than is possible with only one variety. 

293. Alsike clover. — This variety of clover has weak stems, 
which fall to the ground unless supported by attendant grasses. 
Well-made alsike hay ranks with the best, though the yield is not 
large. At the Illinois Station, ""^ Hunt and Morrow secured 1.2 
tons of alsike hay against 2. 1 tons of medium clover hay per acre. 

t Rept. 18S8-89. 

2 "Clover Culture." 

3 Bal. 15. 



202 Feeds and Feeding. 

This variety of clover flourislies on land too moist for other 
clovers, though it will not grow in really wet soils. While red 
clover usually dies out the second year, alsike stands for many 
years, this feature increasing its value for i)asture purposes. 

294. Scarlet or crimson clover. — This clover is an annual, 
resembling the wheat plant in this phase of its habits. If sown 
in late summer or early fall, in the southern part of the United 
States it grows somewhat during the winter, and with the coming 
of spring advances rapidly to the hay period, which is reached 
by late spring, after which the plants die. In making its round 
of growth in the fall and spring, crimson clover resembles winter 
wheat. On the other hand, if sown in sirring it blossoms in late 
summer, matures its seeds and dies, thus following the habit of 
spring wheat. The winter form of this plant has tlourished with 
remarkable success from Delaware^ southward to tlie Carolinas. ' 
Crimson clover can be grown throughout the Southern states as 
a winter plant, but its use has not yet become general. The 
Northern states are too cold for fall -sown crimson clover, but it 
may be used as a summer crop with some advantage, though 
generally it is inferior to red clover. Wherever it flourishes, 
crimson clover will be found useful for soiling purposes, and if 
cut early it makes hay of fair quality. 

295. Danger to horses from overripe crimson clover. — The blos- 
som heads of crimson clover are covered with minute hairs, which 
become rigid as the heads ripen. Investigations conducted by the 
Department of Agriculture, ^ Washington, show that death may 
result to horses when fed overripe crimson clover. A circular 
from the Department states: '^If overripe crimson clover is fed 
to horses, the bristly hairs (of the heads) will accumulate in the 
stomach or intestines in spherical balls, which are increased in 
size by repeated additions of the same matter to their surfaces, 
the whole mass tending to become more compact because most of 
the hairs, upwardly barbed, are constantly j)ushing toward the 
center, base foremost. When a ball has reached a sufficient size 
(whether after a few days or several weeks we have no means of 

1 Bui. l(i, Del. Sta. 

Mini. 7;}, North Car. Sta. 

3 Circular No. 8, Div. of JJotaiiv, 1896. 



Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 203 

knowing), it acts as a plug in tlie intestine, interfering with the 
vital functions, and finally, after a few hours of intense suffering, 
the horse dies from peritonitis or some related difficulty." 

There seems no cure for this ailment. It can be avoided by 
curing crimson clover into hay at the proper stage for making 
that product. Hay from overripe crimson clover, and the refuse 
left when seed is threshed, should not be fed to horses. 

296. Japan clover. — This plant has proved most helpful to 
Southern agriculture because it adds nitrogen to the soil, binds it 
together, prevents washing, and furnishes a nutritious food for 
stock. On sterile land it yields pasture only, while under favor- 
able conditions it reaches a height of from twenty to thirty 
inches, furnishing as much as three tons of hay per acre, which, 
according to Tracy, ^ is equal to the best clover hay. (650) 

297. Burr clover. — This plant is best known in California, 
where, growing wild, it furnishes abundant winter pasture. Tracy 
recommends its use in the South. Its best growth is from Feb- 
ruary to May, after which it disappears. Harrington, of the 
Texas Station, 2 reports the plant in favor with cattle, but not 
relished by horses. 

298. Alfalfa or lucern. — This plant flourishes in the western 
half of the United States, and is of even more importance to that 
vast region than is red clover to the eastern United States. In 
the San Joaquin Valley, California, alfalfa reaches its highest per- 
fection, yielding under the hot suns on the alluvial soils of that 
district from five to seven cuttings of from one to two tons each, 
annually. In Colorado and Utah two to three cuttings are obtained. 
In the humid region, especially Kansas and Nebraska, alfalfa is 
grown to a limited extent, interest in the crop having much 
increased of late. It is also gaining favor in the East as the 
farmers learn to grow it. 

299. Yield of alfalfa.— At the N^ew York (Geneva) Station, s 
Wheeler reports the following yields of alfalfa cut four times dur- 
ins: the season for soiling: 



» Bui. 20, Miss. Sta. 
=« Bui. 20. 
3 Bui. 118. 



204 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Yield of alfalfa during three years — New YorJc (Geneva) Station. 



Year. 


Actual 
area. 


Green 
weight. 


Dry 

matter. 


Protein. 


Albu- 
minoids. 


Date of first 
cutting. 


1894... 
1894... 
1895... 
1896... 
1896... 


Acres. 

2.3 
1.3 
1.3 
1.3 
1.25 


Lbs. 

64,596 
33,803 
37,129 
34,991 
30,514 


Lbs. 

17,034 
8,116 
8,666 
8,527 
7,461 


Lbs. 

2,574 
1,660 
1,4.52 
1,522 
1,302 


Lbs. 

2,068 
1,278 
1,120 
1,167 
1,054 


June 1. 
May 11. 
May 15. 
May 27. 
May 12. 



Here are returns of fourteen tons of green forage per acre, with 
dry matter exceeding three tons. The date of first cutting is a 
point of much interest to stockmen, especially dairymen who 
practice soiling. We learn that in 1894 the first plants were 
ready for soiling May 11, thus furnishing very early forage. 

300. Iowa experience with alfalfa. — At the Iowa Station, ^ Cur- 
tis reports alfalfa under trial. The same season after seeding in 
the spring, two tons of hay were secured in three cuttings; the 
second season the total of three cuttings, made June 1, July 7, 
and September 3, w^as as follows for plats seeded by different 

methods: 

Upland, Bottom, 

tons. tons. 

Plat I. Broadcast 5.3 5.52 

Plat IL Drilled one way 5.18 5.52 

PlatllL Cross drilled 5.25 5.12 

Plat IV. Press drilled 5.08 4.22 

The third cutting was from five to ten per cent, lighter than the 
first two, which were practically equal. The hay was found to 
be of excellent quality, apparently no more difficult to cure than 
that from clover. Further experience is necessary to determine 
whether this plant will stand winter conditions in Iowa, but at the 
date of reporting all was favorable. 

301. Alfalfa compared with corn. — At the Colorado Station, 2 
Cooke compared a crop of dent corn from one acre of land with 
returns from a like area of alfalfa three years seeded on an adjoin- 
ing plat. The corn crop was a fair one, equaling fourteen tons of 

1 Bui. 84. 
*Bul. 26. 



Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 



205 



green forage per acre. The alfallVi was cut three times, yielding 
4, 600 pounds of hay at the first cutting, 3, 350 pounds the second, 
and 3,250 pounds at the third cutting, or a total of 5.G tons of hay 
per acre. The total digestible nutrients of the two crops are pre- 
sented in the following table: 

Comparative yield of corn foy^age and alfalfa hay — Colorado Station. 



Dry matter 

Albuminoids 

Starch, sugar, etc 

Fiber 

Ether extract 

Ash 



Total. 



Corn. Alfalfa. 



Lbs. 

5,539 

405 

3,263 

1,472 

84 
315 



Lbs. 

10,304 
1,G02 

4 782 

2,800 

246 

829 



Digestible. 



Corn. Alfalfa. 



Lbs. 

3,605 

296 

2,186 

1,060 

63 



Lbs. 

5,611 
1,198 
3,114 
1,198 
101 



It will be seen that the alfalfa yielded nearly twice as many 
pounds of dry matter as the corn, with the digestible nutrients far 
in the lead. The protein of the alfalfa was three times that of the 
corn. 

302. Nutrients in the alfalfa crop. — At the Utah Station, ^ 
Widtsoe made a study of the nutrients of the alfalfa crop, and 
some of the facts gathered are presented in the following table: 

Nutrients per acre in three cuttings of alfalfa — TJtdh Station. 
First Cutting. 



Condition of growth. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Nitrogen- 
free ex- 
tract. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Ether 
extract. 


Ash. 


May 4. 
Height, 6V inches 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

607 
1,247 

2,278 
2,298 
],776 


Lbs. 

168 

618 

2,108 

2,531 

2,544 


Lbs. 

40 
103 
118 
116 

94 


Lbs. 
167 


June 1. 

Height, 18 inches 


697 
745 
644 

428 


369 


July 7. 
Full flower 


431 


Aug, 10. 

Flowers fallen, leaves dry 

Aug. 24. 

Still drier 


423 
311 







1 Bui. 48. 



206 



Feeds and Feeding. 
Second Cutting. 



July 7. 

Budding 

July 20. 

Medium bloom . 
Aug. 3. 

Full flower 

Aug. 24. 

Leaves dry 



334 
519 
551 

388 



657 
1,140 
1,529 
1,484 



357 


50 


1,031 


78 


1,316 


81 


1,329 


81 



197 
314 
323 
333 





Tliird Cutting. 








Aujr. 17 


138 
322 

298 


317 
757 
934 


155 
634 

818 


17 
33 
43 


85 


Aug. 31 


211 


Kept. 14 


214 







Widtsoe concludes that to insure a large yield of dry matter 
and albuminoids, alfalfa sliould be cut not earlier than the period 
of middle bloom, and that the blossoms should not be past full 
bloom. This is from two to three weeks after the tlower buds 
appear. 

303. Losses In hay making. — Headden, of the Colorado Sta- 
tion, 1 found that " a very leafy, small-stemmed alfalfa plant may 
have more than 60 per cent, of leaves, and, consequently, less than 
40 per cent, of stems, but the stems of an average plant will amount 
to between 40 and 60 per cent. . . . Inasmuch as many of the 
smaller stems may go with the leaves, the loss in hay making 
can, and in some cases does, amount to from 50 to 60 and even 
more per cent. . . . "VVe have been led by our experience 
and observation to the conclusion that the minimum loss from the 
falling off of leaves and stems in successful hay making amounts 
to from 15 to 20 per cent., and in cases where the conditions have 
been unfavorable to as much as 60 and even QQ per cent, of the 
dry crop, or, for each 1,700 pounds of hay taken off the field, at 
least 300 pounds of leaves and small stems are left, and, in very 
bad cases, as much as 1,200 pounds may be left for each 800 
pounds taken. Of course, the latter is extreme, but it does occa- 
sionally happen even in lliis land of perpetual sunshine." 

304. Damage to aHfalfa hay from rain. — Headden studied the 
losses in alfalfa hay due to bad weather. One sample of hay re- 



i Bui. 35. 



Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Say. 207 

mained out fifteen days, during wliicli time it was subjected to three 
rain storms, amounting in all to 1.76 inches. The other sample 
was from hay cured without injury by rain. Samples of this hay 
were analyzed with the results shown below: 

Hay not Hay 

damaged. damaged. 

Ash 12.2 per cent. 12.7 per cent. 

Crude fiber 2G.5 per cent. 38.8 percent. 

Etherextract 3.9 percent. 3.8 per cent. 

Protein 18.7 per cent. 11.0 percent. 

Nitrogen-free extract 38.7 percent. 33.6 percent. 

It will be seen that the cruds fiber, the poorest part of the hay, 
was increased, and the protein and nitrogen-free extract, the 
more valuable portions, were materially reduced by weathering. 
Headdeu concludes that the estimate of farmers that storms re- 
duce the value of hay one half is reasonable. (289) 

305. Alfalfa in the eastern United States. — Attempts to grow 
alfalfa in the Eastern states have generally ended in failure. The 
wonderful results obtained in the West have served to keep alive 
an interest in this jilant and stimulated renewed trials from 
time to time. The results obtained by several Stations show that 
large returns are possible under favorable conditions. In search- 
ing for the causes of failure, it appears that the most general one 
is insufficient care in securing a good stand of plants. To reach 
this end the ground seeded to alfalfa must be free from w^eed- 
seedS; so that the young plants, which are weak when they first 
spring up, may grow untrammeled. The desired end will be ac- 
complished by summer-fallowing the proposed alfalfa field for one 
season in order to reduce the soil to proper fineness^ and especially 
to sprout and kill all weed-seeds lying near the surfiice. The 
following spring sow from twenty to thirty i)0unds of alfalfa seed 
in drills or cover lightly with a harrow. 

306. Manner of growth. — The alfalfa plant is a gross feeder, 
its tap root reaching many feet into the soil. Headdeu, of the 
Colorado Station, i found alfalfa roots twelve and one-half feet 
below the surface. This indicates that the plant should have a 
subsoil through which the roots may pass, with water not nearer 

1 Bui. 35. 



208 Feeds and Feeding. 

than six feet. A gravelly or sandy subsoil affords the most favor- 
able conditions for downward root growth, though they are not 
absolutely essential. Although under favorable circumstances a 
fair crop of hay may be secured the first season, alfalfa requires 
two or three years to become well established. 

Headden reports from actual count on small areas that the num- 
ber of alfalfa plants per acre varied from 70,000 on a field in 
poor condition to 653,000 on one seeded six months before, and 
526,000 on a field ten years established, the latter yielding four 
tons of hay per acre. 

307. Alfalfa for pasture. — This plant is extensively used for 
pasture in the West, especially in the Salt Eiver Valley, Arizona, 
where large numbers of cattle and swine are successfully grazed 
upon it. The hoofs of farm animals work injury to the crowns of 
the i)lant, and this shortens the life of the alfalfa field given over 
to pasturage. Sheep crop the tender sprouts too closely. Where 
possible it is better to use the mower and carry the forage to the 
animals. With cattle and sheep feeding on green alfalfa, there 
is always danger from bloat, against which precautions must be 
taken. (291) 

At the Kansas Agricultural College, ^ Shelton, i^asturing pigs 
on half an acre of alfalfa during the summer, fed 1,760 pounds of 
corn additional, and secured a gain of 717 pounds. Allowing 329 
pounds as the probable product from the corn, there remains to 
the credit of the half acre of alfalfa 388 pounds of gain. (875) 

308. Alfalfa hay. — In making hay from this plant the greatest 
care should be exercised in saving the leaves and finer parts, so 
easily wasted. The green plants cut with the mower should be 
gathered when partly dry with the hay rake into windrows suf- 
ficiently loose to dry still more, but compact enough to hold the 
leaves and finer parts. Hay making from alfalfa cannot be taught 
by books, but the figures presented by the Colorado Station show- 
ing the possible losses in hay making should incite the farmer and 
stockman to a careful study of the principles underlying success- 
ful practice in handling the crop. There is no more palatable 
roughage for farm animals than good alfalfa hay. This hay is best 

1 Rep. Prof, of Agr., 1884. 



Leguminous Plants for Green Forage and Hay. 209 

suited for dairy cows, fattening stieep and fattening cattle, tliougli 
it is used to a limited exteut for horse feeding. The large amount 
of protein contained in the plant, either green or cured, makes it 
possible for the feeder to properly maintain his animals upon 
alfalfa with but a limited allowance of grain or other feeding 
stuff. (822) 

309. Cowpea. — This plant is used in the South more largely 
for renovating the soil than for forage, yet it has considerable 
value for the latter purpose. The following yields per acre are 
reported from the Georgia Station ^ by Eedding: 13,020 pounds 
of green matter, 2,618 pounds of dry matter, and 840 pounds of 
seed. 

At the South Carolina Station, 2 McBryde reports a yield of 3.6 
tons of cowpea hay per acre. Analyses showed that this forage 
contained more than twice the digestible nutrients harvested in 
an acre of oats yielding 40 bushels, and more than 40 per cent, 
more than an acre of corn yielding 30 bushels. 

The Southern farmer has large use for this plant by sowing late 
after oats or wheat, or in the corn field as a catch crop. The cow- 
pea vine may be mixed with corn forage for making silage. Vir- 
ginia and Kansas mark the northern limit of profitable culture 
for the cowpea in general, though early varieties may be grown 
with advantage in southern Illinois, and even further north where 
sown on particularly warm and favorable soils. (230) 

310. The soja (or soy) bean. — ^According to Georgeson, ^ the soja 
bean has been grown for six years with success at the Kansas Sta- 
tion. A field of wheat stubble sown in July gave a crop which 
matured before frost. The stiff stems of this plant reach a height 
of from two to three feet, and the yield is better than the navy or 
field bean. K made into hay, as much as three tons i)er acre may 
be secured from a field of soja-bean plants. This plant is gain- 
ing friends at the South, but is too tender to be generally useful 
at the North in competition with red clover and alfalfa. (229) 

311. The common field-pea vine. — The common field-pea is 
grown in Canada and the Northern states for seed and human 

1 Bui. 17. 2 Rept. 18S9. 

3 Prairie Farmer, Nov. 9, 1895. 
14 



210 Feeds and Feeding. 

food, and to some extent for forage. A combination of peas and 
oats, if cut early, forms a forage of liigli nutritive quality much 
appreciated by farm stock, especially sheep and dairy cows. In 
the grain which this plant furnishes and the hay which it is pos- 
sible to secure from it, the stockman located far north has a fair 
compensation for the absence of the corn crop. (228) 

312. Hairy vetch. — This plant, from Eussia, is under trial with 
promise of success in some districts. Sown in the fall with rye, 
it finds support from the rye stems and furnishes much forage of 
fair quality. The seed may also be sown in the spring. The 
stems of the plant arc weak, and for this reason it is not useful 
when grown alone. Tracy ^ reports that in the South the vines 
of this vetch may reach a length of from ten to twelve feet, form- 
ing a dense mass of forage two feet in depth. He reports that 
stock of all kinds eat this plant greedily both in pasture and as hay. 

313. Fertilizing constituents of legumes. — Now that it is defi- 
nitely ascertained that the legumes fix the free nitrogen of the air 
in root, stem and leaf, this group of agricultural plants should 
have a double interest with the farmer-stockman who looks to the 
welfare of both fields and stock. In nitrogen and potash the 
legumes lead the cereals, while the phosphoric acid is in fair 
quantity. The manure from legume hay is more valuable than 
that from the corn plant or straw from the cereals. 

» Farmers' Bui. 18, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 



MISCELLANEOUS FEEDING STUFFS. 

I. Boots and Tubers. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 



Ether 
ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Potato 

Beet, common 

Beet, sugar 

Beet, mangel., 

Flat turnip 

Ruta-baga 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 



Lbs. 

21.1 
13.0 
13.5 
9.1 
9.5 
11.4 
11.4 
11.7 
20.0 



Lbs. 

0.9 
1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
1.6 
2.0 



Lbs. 
16.3 



10.2 
5.4 

7.2 

8.1 

7.8 

11.2 

16.8 



Lbs. 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 



Lbs. 

3.2 
2.4 
2.2 
1.9 
1.8 
1.9 
1.5 
1.8 
2.6 



Lbs. 

1.2 
0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
1.4 



Lbs. 

4.6 

4.4 
4.8 
3.8 
3.9 
4.9 
5.1 
4.4 
4.7 



314. Yield of root crops. — At the Ohio Station, ^ Thorne and 
Hickman, as the result of trials covering twelve years, report 
that sugar beets gave an average yield of sixteen tons per acre on 
land which during the same time would yield sixty bushels of 
shelled corn per acre. They estimate that beets cost two dollars 
per ton to raise, harvest and place in the cellar. At the Ottawa 
(Canada) Station, 2 Eobertson reports mangels and carrots yield- 
ing 13.5 tons per acre, and costing for rent of land, cultivation 
and storage of the crop two dollars and fifty cents per ton. 

Zavitz, of the Ontario Agricultural College, ^ reports the yields 
of the three best varieties each of potatoes and roots, under test 
for five to six years, to be as follows: 



Potatoes, 185 bushels per acre. 
Carrots, 28 tons per acre. 
Mangels, 24 tons per acre. 



Turnips (fall or flat), 23 tons per acre. 
Swedes (ruta-bagas),20 tons per acre. 
Sugar beets, 17 tons per acre. 



» Rept. 9. 

2 Rept. 1892. 

3 Rept. 1896. 



212 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The yields are based on comparatively small areas, but the 
figures are ^' aluable in expressing the comparative returns of the 
several crops. 

315. Yield of digestible nutrients. — The digestible nutrients 
yielded by each croj) are the true measure of their value to the 
farmer. These are presented in the following table: 

Estimated yield of digestible nutrients per acre in root crops grown at 
the Ontario Agricultural College. 



Crop. 



185 bushels of potatoes 

28 tons carrots 

24 tons mangels 

23 tons fall (flat) turnips 

20 tons ruta-bagas (Swedes) 
17 tons sugar beets 



Dry 


Pro- 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 


Ether 


matter. 


tein. 


extract. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


2,342 


100 


1,809 




6,384 


448 


4,368 


112 


4,368 


528 


2,592 


48 


4,370 


460 


3,312 


92 


4,560 


400 


3,240 


80 


4,590 


374 


3,468 


34 



The potato gives the poorest returns of any crop under trial 
measured by the total digestible matter. The mangel and turnip 
lead in protein, while the carrot and sugar beet stand first in 
carbohydrates. The relatively low amount of protein in the 
sugar beet with its high content of carbohydrates, mostly sugar, 
shows how successfully that plant has been bred for the single 
purpose of sugar production. 

316. The potato. — Despite the poor showing for the potato it often 
happens that the farmer has large quantities of these tubers which 
would better be fed to his stock than forced on a profitless market. 
According to Fjord's experiments, four pounds of potatoes are 
worth one pound of grain for pig feeding. Trials by the writer 
showed that 445 pounds of potatoes, when cooked, were equal to 
100 pounds of corn meal for pigs. (4S3-6, 866, 897) For pig 
feeding, potatoes should be cooked and mixed with meal; for 
sheep and cattle they are fed sliced, with good results. Care 
should be exercised in regulating the amount fed, heavy feeding 
of raw potatoes inducing scouring. (658) 

317. The carrot. — This root is much relished by horses of all 
ages and conditions. (487) Being watery, it cannot be fed in 



Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 213 

quantity to hard-worked or driving horses. Carrots also serve 
well for other stock, especially dairy cows. (900) 

318. The mangel. — Though the most watery of all roots, the 
mangel crop stands well in total dry matter because of the large 
yield. At the Cornell Station, ^ Eoberts found the yield of dry 
matter practically the same in mangels and sugar beets, with the 
labor of harvesting the sugar beets fully twice that of the mangels. 

Because the large roots stand well out of the ground, the mangel 
is easily cultivated and harvested. It is mainly devoted to feed- 
ing cows, and is used to some extent for sheep feeding. When 
boiled and mixed with meal it is excellent for feeding swine and 
stock hogs. (549, 898) 

319. Sugar beet. — Through careful selection this root has been 
marvelously developed for the single purpose of producing sugar. 
Because it sets deep in the ground the sugar beet is more 
expensive to harvest than other roots. If fed in large quantity 
this root induces scouring, possibly because of its high sugar 
content. Because of these facts, Eoberts' conclusion, that it is 
better to grow mangels instead, should generally be followed. 
Farmers patronizing sugar factories having waste beets should 
utilize them. (766, 899) 

320. Ruta-baga (Swede turnip). — This root is next to the mangel 
for ease of cultivation and harvesting. Sheep prefer the ruta- 
baga to all other roots. Like other turnips the ruta-baga may 
taint the milk of cows, and for this reason should be fed in only 
limited quantity immediately after milking. This root is a favor- 
ite with the stockmen of Canada. (489, 901) 

321. Flat turnip. — This root yields less nutriment than the ruta- 
baga, and is not as satisfactory for general use in stock feeding. 
Sown as a catch crop, large yields are often secured at small cost. 
This root is used mainly for feeding sheep, as it affects milk still 
more unfavorably than the ruta-baga. 

322. Parsnip. — The parsnip is a favorite root crop with the 
dairy farmers on the islands of Jersey and Guernsey. Since it 
contains more nutriment, especially carbohydrates, than most 
roots, and is easily grown, its use should become more common. 

' Bui. 25. 



214 Feeds and Feeding. 

323. Artichoke. — At the Massachusetts Station, i Goessmann 
reports artichokes planted May 4 yielding a crop in November at 
the rate of 8.2 tons per acre. At the Arkansas Station ^ the 
yield was from 454 to 612 bushels per acre. Schweitzer, of the 
Missouri Station, ^ found artichokes of equal value with potatoes 
for pig feeding. (488, 868) The artichoke crop is harvested by 
allowing pigs to root out and consume the tubers. 

324. Storing roots. — Eoots should be stored dry in well- venti- 
lated cellars or pits where the temperature is just above freezing. 
Many stockmen hold that roots are not suitable for feeding until 
several weeks after harvesting and storage, during which time 
they undergo a process of ripening which fits them for animal use. 

325. Feeding roots. — In Great Britain roots take the i)lace of 
much of the grain and coarse forage which would otherwise be 
required by stock. In such cases sheep are fed as much as 
20 and cattle 100 pounds daily. In this country, where they 
are more often used for variety than nourishment, the animal is 
given a smaller allowance. For horses four or five pounds of 
carrots, for dairy cows twenty to thirty pounds of mangels, and 
for sheep four or five pounds of ruta-bagas, are a fair daily allow- 
ance of roots, and one that will greatly conduce to the healthful- 
ness of flock and herd. 

Carrots may be fed to horses without slicing. 

Eoots of all kinds should be sliced for sheep, and either sliced 
or pulped for cattle. This crop is not generally used for swine 
feeding in this country, but small quantities may be fed to animals 
of all ages with advantage. (657, 765, 867) 

326. Roots modify the animal carcass. — At the Utah Station, * 
Sanborn fed roots to steers, sheep and swine, and on determining 
the water and fat of the carcasses wrote: " (1) The live-M'eight 
gain for cattle and sheep was greater, and for hogs less, when fed 
on roots. (2) The dressed weight of cattle, sheep and hogn 
showed in every case greater shrinkage for those fed on roots. 
(3) The root-fed animals contained more blood and necessarily 



» Rept. 10. 


» Bui. 


31. 


3 Bui. 


29. 


«Bul. 


17. 



Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 215 

more water in the blood. (4) The root-fed steers had heavier 
vital organs. (5) The fat was always less for the root-fed ani- 
mals, and affords a somewhat decisive test of their relative value." 

Thus we learn that roots cause a more watery carcass than do 
dry feeds. For breeding stock especially, and even for animals 
in the early stages of fattening, may not this point be one of value 
instead of detriment ? The shote running on clover pasture like- 
wise has a watery carcass because of the succulent feed eaten, yet 
it lays on fat at small cost for food consumed. Grass -fed steers are 
in the best condition, because of such feed, to make rapid gains 
when changed to more solid food. A steer fed roots during the 
first part of the fattening period should remain more vigorous and 
make better gains for food consumed than one held on dry feed 
from start to finish. There is no doubt that for breeding stock 
the less tense flesh, a natural sequence of root feeding, is more 
conducive to vigorous young at birth, and to their hearty mainte- 
nance after birth, than dry feed continued without intermission 
throughout our long winters. The dairy cow takes kindly to suc- 
culent food, and cannot get it in better form than in that furnished 
by roots. If silage is not used, then let roots be fed, in a limited 
way at least, to our farm stock. When with dry feed we can 
produce beef cattle and mutton sheep equal to those of Great 
Britain, and dairy cows generally as good as those of Jersey, then 
and not until then can we say there is no place for roots or some 
other succulent feed on American farms. 

327. Root crops not generally grown. — Despite the advice of 
agricultural writers urging the use of roots, and the example of 
the English and Canadian feeders, who rely so largely on this 
crop, roots are no more generally grown in the United States than 
they were fifty years ago. The cause for this lack of interest is 
explained by Storer in the following: ^ '' Corn is remarkable, not 
only for its easy cultivation, but for its enormous yield both of 
food and of fodder. It is at once a grain crop and a forage crop; 
or, even more emphatically, a bread crop and a fallow crop. 
Practically it has hitherto in good part, if not entirely, done away 
with the need of cultivating roots for cattle food in this country, 

1 Agriculture, Vol. 11, p. 313. 



216 



Feeds and Feeding. 



and it lias enormously curtailed the growing of leguminous forage 
crops also. It is a higlily interesting and still debatable question 
as to liow and when and where (if anywhere) systems of farm- 
ing based on the supplementing of Indian corn with roots may 
best be practiced." 

While the corn plant is so truly the superior of the root crop, 
stockmen should watch, lest failing to make the proper use of the 
one they neglect the other. Farmers as a rule should have some 
succulent food for their stock during the long winterj if it is not in 
the form of silage, then let it be roots. 

II. Miscellaneous Forage Flants, Fruits, etc. * 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

ill 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Cabbage 

Spurry 

Sugar-beet leaves . 

Pumpkin, field 

Pumpkin, garden. 
Prickly comfrey.. 

Rape 

Acorns, fresh 



Lbs. 

15.3 

20.0 
12.0 
9.1 
19.2 
11.6 
14.0 
44.7 



Lbs. 

1.8 
l.o 
1.7 
1.0 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
2.1 



Lbs. 

8.2 
9.8 
4.0 
5.8 
8.3 
4.8 
8.1 
34.4 



Lbs. 

0.4 

0.3 
0.2 
0.3 
0.8 
0.2 
0.2 
1.7 



Lbs. 

3.8 
3.8 
4.1 



Lbs. 

1.1 
2.5 
1.5 



Lbs. 

4.3 
5.9 

6.2 



1.1 
4.2 
4.5 



1.6 
1.1 
1.5 



0.9 

7.5 
3.6 



328. Cabbage. — This plant is grown to some extent in Europe 
for stock-feeding. On rich ground, yields fully equal or greater 
than those from roots may be obtained. No food is more highly 
relished by sheep or dairy cows, though for the latter cabbage 
must be fed with caution because it imparts a taint to the milk. 
Where soiling is practiced, cabbage may be found a profitable 
crop, though the labor required in the cultivation and the diffi- 
culties of storage will probably turn the feeder to the corn plant 
in its stead. 

329. Spurry. — This plant, grown to a small extent in Europe, 
may possibly prove of value in America on soils too light and 
sandy for red clover. Kedzie, of the Michigan Station, 2 reports 

1 For description of numerous varieties of forage plants see Fodder and 
Fornge Plants, Bui. 2, Division of Agrostology, U. tS. Dept. Agr. 

2 Bui. 101. 



Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 217 

quite favorably on this plaut for light, sandy land. Stockmen 
who can grow crops of red clover and corn have no use for spurry. 

330. Sugar-beet leaves. — In the vicinity of beet-sugar factories 
leaves from the beet are available in large quantities. Because 
of oxalic acid in the leaves, they can be fed to stock only in limited 
quantity without injurious effects. In Europe beet leaves are 
preserved by building them up in layers, and sprinkling lime over 
each layer for the purpose of neutralizing the oxalic acid. The 
heaps thus made are covered with earth and held until required 
for feeding. 

331. Pumpkin. — Grown as a main crop or even as a secondary 
one in the corn field, the pumpkin vine often yields large returns 
at small cost for production. A tract of well-prepared land 
devoted exclusively to this vegetable will pay well under good 
management. For dairy cows the pumpkin is an excellent fall 
feed, none being more highly relished; for swine in the first stages 
of fattening they are useful either fresh or cooked with meal. 

There is a tradition among farmers that pumpkin seeds increase 
the excretion from the kidneys and should be removed before feed- 
ing. In the dispensatory tlie pumpkin seed is given as a vermi- 
fuge, with no reference to any other property. Since the seeds 
contain nutriment they should not be wasted. 

332. Prickly comfrey. — From time to time we find this plant 
highly praised in the agricultural press for its forage properties. 
At the Wisconsin Station ^ a comfrey plat was found to require 
about the same cultivation as the same area planted to potatoes. 
Woll, comparing the retnrns from this plat, when well established, 
with an adjacent area of red clover seeded the year before, found 
that the red clover in three cuttings yielded twenty-three per 
cent, more dry matter and twenty-five per cent, more protein 
than did the comfrey. Cattle generally will not eat this plaut 
when first offered to them, but soon overcome the objection. Gen- 
erally the stockman would better give his attention to red clover, 
alfalfa or corn than attempt to use comfrey. 

333. Cactus. — In times of scarcity several species of cactus in 
western Texas are used for maintaining cattle and sheep. The 

» Kept. 1889. 



218 Feeds and Feeding. 

prickles of the leaves are scorclied off by fire before feeding. 
Carothers ^ reports: '' During the severe drought of last winter 
and the previous One many thousands of cattle were fed upon the 
scorched pear cactus leaves, but it was the universal experience 
that it was necessary to give some species of roughage with it; 
that if fed alone it would not be assimilated and would cause 
scouring or diarrhoea." 

The feed is sometimes prepared by steaming the chopped leaves 
mixed with cotton seed, and this compound is reported as very 
satisfactory. 2 

334. Forage rape. — Though as yet grown in but a limited way 
the rape plant is rapidly gaining in favor in this country, mainly 
through the instrumentality of our Experiment Stations, which 
have brought it prominently to the attention of stockmen. The 
Dwarf Essex is the variety commonly sown. In a few instances 
bird-seed rape has been sown, resulting in a product of no feeding 
value. Eape may be sown at any time from early spring until 
August in the ISTorthern states, the seed being scattered at the 
rate of three or four j-jounds per acre broadcast, or two or three 
pounds per acre in drills thirty inches apart. Only in the latter 
form is any cultivation required. The crop is harvested by turn- 
ing stock directly into the rape field to consume the abundant 
nutritious leaves and stems, which are the parts eaten. It cannot 
be utilized to advantage as a dry forage, nor as silage owing to its 
large water content. Zavitz^ reports a yield of twenty-seven tons 
per acre from two pounds of seed sown in drills twenty-seven 
inches apart, the crop being cultivated every ten days. At the 
Wisconsin Station,* Craig secured a yield of nine and three- 
quarters tons of rape at a single cutting from a half acre of laud, 
while a small plat yielded at the rate of thirty-six tons per acre 
from two cuttings. 

335. Ises of rape. — For cattle, rape is highly prized by some 
feeders for furnishing a succulent feed during the fall montlis 
and preparing them for winter. It has also been fed to dairy cows, 
but must be used with caution lest it taint the milk. Trials at 



lAgr. Sci., Vol. I, 1887, No. 11. 

2 See Bui. 3. Bot. Div. U. S. Dop. Agr. 

3 Rept. 19, Ont. Agr. Col. ^ Rept. 11. 



Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 219 

the Wisconsin Station ^ by Craig sliow that rape has a very con- 
siderable value for feeding swine, especially during the earlier 
stages of fattening. This feed is much relished by pigs. Being 
succulent it distends the digestive tract and prepares it for the 
heavier grain feeding which follows. 

It is on sheep farms that rape will find its largest use. It can 
be fed to all classes of sheep with advantage, and since the animals 
harvest the crop the cost of feeding it is insignificant compared 
with the returns. Within eight weeks after seeding the plants 
are large enough for use, and they are then fed off by turning the 
sheep directly into the field to gather the forage at will. Craig, 
of the Wisconsin Station, 2 makes the following recommendations: 
' ' The attempt should never be made to feed lambs rajje without 
giving them a couple of hours grazing on pasture before turning 
them into the rape. This is necessary for the safety of the lambs, 
as they are otherwise very liable to bloat, and the combined feed- 
ing of ijasture and rape results in greater gains. ' ' 

The rape crop, which will probably grow anywhere in the 
United States at some season of the year, is recommended to 
farmers and stockmen as well worthy of trial, since it is produced 
at small expense for seed and culture and yields an immense 
amount of nutritious forage, the flavor and succulence of which 
are highly appreciated by cattle, especially sheep and swine. 
(656, 767-769, 879) 

336. Acorn. — In some of the forests of Europe this crop has 
considerable value for swine feeding, and is usod to a limited 
extent in this country. The influence of acorns on the flesh of 
swine is uncertain, some asserting that the pork from acorn-fed 
swine is satisfactory, while others affirm that it is soft and un- 
desirable. 

337. Leaves and twigs. — The small branches and leaves of 
trees are fed regularly to farm animals in the mountain regions of 
Europe where herbage is scarce, and in case of failure of pastures 
or the hay crop they have been extensively used elsewhere. 
Twigs contain about fifty per cent, digestible components, mostly 
non-nitrogenous substances. They contain from forty to fifty per 

I Bui. 58. 2 Loc. cit. 



220 



Feeds and Feeding. 



€ent. dry matter, and generally less than two per cent, of protein. 
Leaves are somewhat more digestible than twigs, and the better 
kinds compare favorably, in feeding value, to meadow hay. 
Leaves of the ash, birch, linden and elder are considered of 
:greatest value, in the order given. They are eaten with relish, 
especially by goats and sheep, and are often harvested in the fall 
and dried for winter feeding. 

III. Slaughter-house and Beet-sugar Factory Refuse. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Dried blood. .. 

Meat scrap 

Dried fish 

Beet pulp 

Beet molasses. 



Lbs. 

91.5 

89.3 
89.2 
10.2 
79.2 



Lbs, 

52.3 

60.2 

44.1 

0.6 

9.1 



Lbs. 

.0 

.3 

.0 

7.3 

59.5 



Lbs. 

2,5 
13.7 
10.3 



.0 



Lbs. 

135,0 
113.9 

77.5 
1.4 

14.6 



Lbs. 

13.5 

7.0 

120.0 

0.2 

0.5 



Lbs. 

7.7 
1.0 
2.0 
0.4 
56.3 



338. Dried blood. — Dried blood from the slaughter-house is 
used for the most part by farmers and gardeners for fertilizing 
purposes. Such use seems a perversion, for it should first be 
employed as a feeding stuff and the voidings of the animals to 
which it has been fed applied to field and garden, thus securing 
two values. Dried blood may serve a useful purpose with the 
stockman, especially the pig feeder. We have learned that corn 
lacks protein; dried blood is a complementary food, since it is 
remarkably rich in protein. Pigs at weaning time will relish a 
tablespoonful of dried blood daily with their feed, and this allow- 
ance may be gradually increased until two ounces are fed daily to 
each animal. Those feeding pigs, especially if handling breeding 
stock, should not allow the gardeners to have first claim to such a 
useful adjunct to the short list of really desirable feeding ma- 
terials usually available. See Chapter VI. (778, 902) 

339. Flesh meal, meat scrap. — The introduction of meat scrap 
or flesh meal as a feed for stock is due to the efforts of Baron 
Liebig, at whose instance the first factory for making meat extract 



Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 221 

was founded in TJraguay, and who suggested the utilization of 
the refuse meat for stock feeding. Large quantities of flesh meal 
or meat scrap are now shipped from South America to Europe for 
use as feed and fertilizers. As shown by the table, this product 
is remarkably rich in protein, which gives it a high value in con- 
nection with corn for feeding stock, especially pigs. 

According to Wolff, ^ flesh meal has been found satisfactory as 
a food for ruminants as well as for swine. When fed to cows and 
oxen, only a limited quantity should at first be given, the amount 
being increased until two or three pounds are fed daily. Lambs 
and sheep digest flesh meal as completely as do pigs, and thrive 
on this feed. 

Judging from the results obtained with flesh meal, there is no 
reason why the better grades of meat scrap produced at our 
slaughter-houses should not be used for feeding stock, especially 
pigs. La Querriere, ^ discussing meat scrap, concludes that it is 
excellent for horses when boiled and mixed with hay and straw. 
The practice of feeding meat to horses is by no means new. The 
Arabs prepared camels' flesh with other feed in the form of cakes 
which were given to their horses, thus providing a concentrated, 
nutritious food. 

Scheurer ^ has shown that meat scrap mixed with ground grain 
and baked into a bread can be kept for at least seven years with- 
out suffering deterioration. A division of English army horses 
fed American dried meat made into a biscuit with oats showed 
decided superiority over horses fed in the ordinary way. Such 
meat biscuits have been recommended for feeding race-horses. 
(778, 874) 

340. Dried fish, fish scrap. — Two feeds made from fish have 
been placed on the market, viz., fish scrap, which is the dried 
and ground refuse in the manufacture of dried codfish, and her- 
ring cakes or fish meal, which are the whole fish, dried and 
ground. Both fish scrap and fish cake are used as cattle feeds in 
the coast regions of Europe. (551) The effects of fish cakes on 
milk and butter have been studied by Nilson, * Winberg ^ and 

1 Farm Foods, Eng. Ed., p. 204. 

* Milchzeitung, 1881, p. 753. 
3 Loc. cit. 

* Kgl. Landtbr. Akad. Handl., 1889, 257. 
Tidskrift f. Laudtmaend, 1891, 522. 



222 Feeds and Feeding. 

Speir, 1 who report no bad influence on the milk when reasonable 
quantities are fed. In Nilson's experiments, eighty parts of her- 
ring cake replaced one hundred parts of linseed cake in the 
ration of dairy cows. '■^ (661) 

With dried fish used so largely for fertilizing purposes, the 
stockman will readily understand the high value of manure or- 
iginating from this feed. 

341. Sugar-beet pulp. — With the development of the beet-sugar 
industry in this country there will arise much inquiry as to the 
value of the refuse from the factory for stock feeding. Beet pulp 
contains about ninety per cent, water and ten jDer cent, solids. 
The solid matter is composed in part of the cell walls of the beet 
root, and for this reason contains considerable crude fiber. This 
fact, and its watery character, indicate that the best use of beet 
l)ulp is to serve as a feed for cattle and sheep. Bran and clover 
or alfalfa hay are complementary feeding stuffs for balancing the 
ration. 

According to Myrick, ^ a system of feeding cattle in sheds and 
pens is in operation at the Lehi (Utah) beet sugar factory, where 
2, 000 head of cattle are fattened each season. Here each animal 
consumes from 100 to 125 pounds of pulp daily in addition to 15 
pounds of hay. '■ ' These cattle command a very good market, 
the meat being very juicy and tender." 

Feeding tests were conducted by practical farmers under direc- 
tion of the Halle (Germany) Station, * in which a uniform quan- 
tity of grain and hay was fed to cows and steers throughout the 
trial, with beet pulp supplied in different amounts, for the several 
y)eriods. As a summary of some of these trials v;e have the fol- 
lowing: 



1 Trans. Highl. & Agr. Soc, 1888, pp. 112-128. 

^ Concernina: the feeding of salt herrings to milch cows, see Rei^t. Conn. 
Expt. 8ta., 18'i)0, p. 180. 
3 Sugar: a New and Profitable Industry. 
* Expt. Sta. Rec, Vol. 3. 



Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 



223 



Yield of milk from dairy eoics and gain of steers fed varying quanti- 
ties of beet pidp — Salle {Germany) Station. 







Cows. 






Period I and V. 


Period II and IV. 


Period III. 


Beet pulp fed 


44 pounds. 
29.4 pounds. 


66 pounds. 
30.7 pounds. 


88 pounds. 
31.1 pounds. 


MDk vield 






Steers. 


Beet pulp fed 


G6 pounds. 
8.3 pounds. 


88 pounds. 
3.5 pounds. 


110 pounds. 
2.8 pounds. 


Daily gaiu 





With cows, eighty-eiglit pounds of pulp caused the largest flow 
of milk, while with steers the medium quantity supplied, eighty- 
eight pounds, gave the best returns, a larger amount materially 
reducing the gain. 

342. Silage from beet puip. — Beet pulp makes a very fair 
quality of silage, and because of the large quantity turned out by 
the factory in a comparatively short time, much of the pulp 
should be preserved in the silo in order that the period of its use- 
fulness may be materially extended. The simplest form of pres- 
ervation is effected by excavating trenches three or four feet in 
depth, aud wide enough to drive a team and wagon through. 
Loads of beet pulp are deposited in this, and when the mass is 
several feet above the surface of the ground it is arranged with 
sloping sides which are covered with straw, and on this earth is 
placed to keep out air and frost. For storing pulp the silo, con- 
structed in the same manner as for the preservation of green corn, 
will in the end be found more economical. 

Beet silage is relished by cattle, and serves well for feeding 
them, both for flesh and milk. It has about half the value of 
•corn silage. 

343. Importance of utilizing beet pulp. — Farmers growing beets 
for the sugar factory should not be content with this operation, 
but should add to their system that of feeding a large amount of 
pulp — at least as much as results from the beets grown by them. 

By feeding stock beet pulp and the other waste of the crop, 
large quantities of manure will be made which will assist in keep- 



224 Feeds and Feeding. 

ing the farm in liigli fertility, assuring large crops from the beet 
fields and ample forage from other lands, iLsed in rotation, for the 
maintenance of live stock. A farming community which will 
intelligently grow beets and utilize the pulp resulting from them 
in the feeding of cattle will be able to grow as large crops, in addi- 
tion to the beets, as were produced before adding that industry, 
and to maintain many more cattle than was possible before beet 
farming was inaugurated. This statement is warranted by the 
conditions prevailing in the beet districts of Europe. Beet culture 
means more cattle and larger crops generally, rather than less, 
provided always that the pulp from the beets is properly utilized. 

344. Molasses from the beet factory. — Beet molasses, the residue 
in the manufacture of sugar, is a bitter substance having purging 
proj)erties. In Europe much of this material has heretofore been 
wasted, but through continued study by the investigators more 
and more of it is being utilized. It has been found that a stock 
food can be prepared by combining beet molasses and dried peat 
from bogs. The acid in the peat is said to neutralize the alkali 
of the molasses. 

In Sweden, Insulanderi fed as much as 3.3 pounds of molasses 
daily to dairy cows by diluting with twice its weight of water 
and pouring it over the feed. Work-horses were fed 2,2 i^ounds 
daily, and pigs were successfully fed molasses with skim milk. 

Clausen and Friderichsen^ have shown that beet molasses con- 
taining fifty per cent, of sugar, when mixed with fresh blood, may 
stand exposed to the air for a long time without putrefaction. 
By adding this mixture of molasses and blood to corn meal or 
other cereal products and drying, a very nutritious compound is 
obtained which is palatable with all kinds of farm stock. 

345. Quantities of molasses to be fed. — According to Hollrung' 
the following quantities of beet molasses may be fed with good 
results to farm animals, daily, per thousand pounds live weight: 
Draft oxen, 4.4 pounds; fattening steers, 8.8 pounds; milch cows, 
2.75 pounds; fattening sheep, 5.5 pounds and ewes .3 pounds. 

I Expt. Sta. Rec, Vol. 7. 

* A New Rational Method for the Utilization of Blood — Copenhagen, 
1896. 
3 Jahrcsb. Agr. Chem., 1895, p. 446. 



Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 225 

Animals advanced in pregnancy should be allowed only half tlie 
usual quantity. 

346. Potash in beet molasses. — The high potash content of 
beet molasses, together with a considerable quantity of nitrogen, 
shows that this by-product should not be wasted, but its ultimate 
fertilizing constituents saved to the farm. 

347. Sorghum and cane-sugar molasses. — Unlike bitter beet 
molasses, that from the cane plant is palatable and much relished 
by all farm animals. Cane molasses contains about fifty per cent, 
sugar and twelve per cent. gums. The nutrients it contains are 
about equal to thoso in corn, and, since starch and sugar have 
practically the same nutritive value, cane molasses has the same 
feeding value as an equal weight of corn. 

At the Texas Station, ^ Gulley fed molasses with cotton-seed 
hulls and cotton-seed meal to fattening steers with good results. 
When molasses was added to silage, the ■combination gave poorer 
returns than silage alone. (552) 

Molasses is used to some extent for preparing animals for show i^ 
or sale. Its good effect for this purpose is doubtless due to its 
palatability inducing large consumption of the feed substances 
with which it is mingled. Flesh put on through molasses feeding 
is not considered substantial, and this substance is said to be 
deleterious to breeding animals, leading to sterility, especially 
with males. 

348. Sugar. — Lawes and Gilbert's investigations to determine 
the relative value of sugar and starch in foods are well summar- 
ized in the following: ^ ^'In conclusion, the evidence of direct 
experiment clearly goes to show that all but identical amounts of 
the dry substance of cane sugar and of starch are both consumed 
by a given weight of animal within a given time, and are required 
to yield a given weight of increase. The practical identity in 
feeding- value, which from the known chemical relationship of 
these two substances has hitherto been assumed, is now therefore 
experimentally illustrated, and it probably only varies in point 
of fact with their slightly varying percentages of carbon." 

1 Bui. 10. 

* The Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food, Rothamsted Memoirs, 
Vol. II. 
15 



226 



Feeds and Feeding. 



III. Cow's Milk and its By-products. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 



Kind of milk. 





Digestible nut 


rients 1 


Dry 


in 100 pounds. 1 


matter 








in 100 


Pro- 


Carbo- 


Ether 


pounds. 


tein.* 


hy- 
d rat est 


ex- 
tract. 1 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


12.8 


3.6 


4.9 


3.7 


2.5.4 


17.6 


2.7 


3.6 


9.6 


8.1 


4.7 


0.8 


9.4 


2.9 


5.2 


0.3 


9.9 


3.9 


4.0 


1.1 


6.6 


0.8 


4.7 


0.3 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Cow's milk 

Cow's milk, colostrum. 

Skim milk, gravity 

Skim milk, centrifugal 

Buttermilk 

Whey 



Lbs. 

5.3 

28.2 
5.6 
5.6 
4.8 
1.5 



Lbs. 

1.0 
6.6 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 
1.4 



Lbs. 

1.8 
1.1 
1.9 
1.9 
1.6 
1.8 



* Casein and albumen. t Milk sugar. J Fat. 

349. Concerning milk. — Milk is the only substance wliich we 
know to be designed by nature for the sole purpose of supplying 
nourishment for animal life. For this reason it must always pos- 
sess a peculiar interest to the student of animal nutrition. It 
seems reasonable to suppose, from its single i)urpose, that milk 
not only contains all the nutrients necessary to sustain the life of 
young animals but that these are arranged in proper proportion. 

350. Fat and serum. — The milk of the cow may be divided into 
fat and milk serum. The percentage of fat in the milk of the 
same cow may vary greatly both in the entire milk produced at 
different periods and in different portions drawn at the same 
milking. The first milk drawn is i)oor in fat, while that last 
drawn is very rich, as is shown by the following table prepared 
by Babcock of the Wisconsin Station r^ 

Percentage composition of Jirst and last mUlc from the cow and of the 
serum — Wisconsin Station. 





Composition of milk. 


Composition of milk 
serum. 




Water. 


Solids. 


Fat. 


Water. 


Solids. 


Trial No. 1. 
Pirst milk 


88.17 
80.82 

88.73 
80.37 


11.83 
19.18 

11.27 
19.63 


1.82 
9.63 

1.07 
10.36 


89.85 
89.43 

89.69 
89.66 


10.65 


Strippin<''S 


10.57 


Trial No.^ 2. 
First milk 


10.81 


Strippings 


10.34 







» Bui. 18. 



Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 227 

It will be seen that tlie last milk drawn was from seven to ten 
times as rich in fat as that first drawn. On the other hand, the 
serum, which consists of the milk solids less the fat, is substan- 
tially constant in composition. 

351. Milk fat. — In the manufacture of butter, the object of the 
dairyman is to secure all the fat possible from the milk with but a 
trace of the other constituents. By the use of the centrifugal sep- 
arator most of the fat is abstracted from the milk, the residue 
amounting to from one to three-tenths of one per cent. In grav- 
ity creaming, which was formerly the only process employed, about 
seven-tenths of one per cent, of fat is usually left in the skim 
milk. For this reason gravity skim milk is usually somewhat 
superior for feeding purposes to that skimmed by the centrifugal 
separator. 

352. The nitrogenous constituents. — As the table shows, aver- 
age milk contains 3.6 per cent, of nitrogenous substances, mainly 
casein and albumen, in the proportion of about five parts of casein 
to one of albumen. 

In the manufacture of cheese^ rennet is added to the milk for 
the pur j)ose of coagulating the casein. The casein thus coagulated 
entraps the fat globules and carries most of them into the curd. 
The albumen, which does not coagulate, together with the milk 
sugar passes into the whey, as does some of the fat. The amount 
of fat present in whey varies greatly, according to the manner in 
which the curd is manipulated previous to drawing the whey. 

353. Milk sugar. — Milk sugar in separate form is a white 
powder of low sweetening power, and is much less soluble than 
cane sugar, which it closely resembles in chemical composition. 
When milk sours some of the sugar is changed to lactic acid, which 
has the effect of coagulating or curdling the casein. When about 
eight-tenths of one per cent, of acid has developed, fermentation 
ceases, so that sour milk may still contain much of the original 
milk sugar. Judging from its composition, milk sugar has about 
the same value for feeding as the same weight of starch. 

354. Ash in milk. — In each hundred pounds of milk there are 
about seven-tenths of a pound of mineral matter, consisting chiefly 
of phosphates and chlorids of ijotash, soda and lime. 



228 Feeds and Feeding. 

355. Colostrum. — The first milk yielded by the cow after calv- 
ing is yellow, thick and viscous, differing from natural milk in 
its high protein and ash content with low fat and milk sugar. 
The albumen of colostrum milk may reach 13.6 per cent., while in 
normal milk it is about one-half of one per cent. This first milk is 
exceedingly important to the young animal at birth, and should 
never be withheld from it, for besides yielding nutriment it pos- 
sesses properties which serve to cleanse the alimentary tract and 
properly start the work of digestion. (527) 

356. Whole milk. — Whole milk is too valuable, in most in- 
stances, to be used as a feed for farm animals, though the stock- 
man should never hesitate to supply it when required by very 
young or valuable animals. Young stock being prepared for 
exhibition can be forced ahead rapidly by the judicious use of 
unskimmed milk, and the knowing ones connected with our live- 
stock exhibitions could tell, if they would, some interesting stories 
concerning the feeding of milk to animals whose weights, if not 
their ages, would indicate that they should long before have been 
weaned. (504, 516, 659, 736) 

357. Skim milk. — Because of the protein and ash it carries, 
skim milk is of high value in building up the muscular and bony 
framework of young animals. According to Pott, ^ the horses of 
the Cooperative Dairy Association of Hamburg are fed large 
quantities of skim milk and buttermilk with satisfactory results. 
In eastern Prussia suckling foals are fed buttermilk and sour 
akim milk. 

Where skim milk is fed care should be exercised in its admin- 
istration. The vessels which hold the milk and those from which 
it is fed should be kept clean and wholesome. Milk should 
always be fed to very young animals at blood temperature, lest 
on entering the stomach at a lower temperature than maintained 
by that organ it arrest the progress of digestion. With very 
young animals skim milk should be fed not less than three times 
daily. (518-20, 659, 869-71, 886-8, 890) 

358. Buttermilk. — This by-product has substantially the same 
composition as skim milk. Tests at the Massachusetts Station^ 

» Futtermittel, p. 645. « Buls. 13, 18. 



Miscellaneous Feeding Stuffs. 229 

show that buttermilk lias about the same feeding value as skim 
milk with pigs. In the hands of skilled feeders buttermilk may 
also be used in calf rearing, though many have failed in this un- 
dertaking. Except for very young animals buttermilk may be 
used successfully wherever skim milk is employed as a feed. 
Creameries often dilute buttermilk with water, thereby reducing 
its value. (872) 

359. Whey. — Whey is an exceedingly thin food, and is so liable 
to misuse that many prefer to waste it rather than incur the risk 
attendant upon its use. Whey may be fed to pigs with profit, but 
it must be kept in clean vessels and fed in a cleanly manner. At 
the Ontario Agricultural College, ^ Day secured as good results 
with whey somewhat soured as with sweet whey. The feeder 
should not conclude from this that sour whey held in filthy tanks 
and vessels is a suitable feed for farm stock. (523, 528, 660, 873, 
887, 889, 890) 

360. Fertilizing value. — The dairyman who sells butter and 
feeds the skim milk and buttermilk to farm animals parts with but 
an insignificant amount of fertility. When cheese is made, if the 
whey is returned to the farm, a considerable portion of the min- 
■eral matter of the milk is conserved, but most of the nitrogen is 
lost. If whole milk is sold, the drain of fertilizing ma.tter is con- 
siderable. These differences should always be borne in mind in 
■conducting the various branches of dairy farming. 

V. Condimental Foods. 

361. Findings of investigators. — Proprietary articles styled 
"Prepared Food," ''^Seed Meal," etc., costing from three to ten 
cents per pound, are common, and judging from the advertising 
space given them in newspapers a large amount of money must 
be received from their sale each year. It is generally claimed 
for these feeds that they possess great nutritive properties and 
medicinal qualities combined. 

In England Thorley's Food is a standard article of this class, 
having been largely advertised for many years. Lawes and Gil- 
bert tested its effectiveness with sheep, and conclude i^ "The 

1 Rept. 1896. 

2 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. II. 



230 Feeds and Feeding. 

last column .... sliows that in both of the comparative 
experiments more food was consumed to produce a given amount 
of increase with Thorley's Food than without." 

362. Nutriotone. — This condiment has been extensively adver- 
tised in the East as a food- medicine for farm animals, with the 
following directions for dairy cows: "Give two large tablespoon- 
fuls with each feed. This will produce a great increase of much 
richer milk." 

Nutriotone was tested by the Vermont ^ and Maine Stations. ' 
N'o advantages followed its use at the Vermont Station. 

The following summarizes the findings at the Maine Station: 

Milk. Fat. 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Average for twenty-one days without nutriotone 2,281 101 

Average for twenty-one days with nutriotone 2 , 264 101 

It will be seen that this condiment was practically without 
effect. 

363. Condimental foods not recommended. — The basis of the 
better class of condimental foods is flax-seed meal, oil meal or 
the by-products from oleaginous seeds, locust-bean meal, etc. 
They are spiced with anise, cumin and other aromatic seeds. 
Fenugreek, slippery-elm bark, charcoal, common salt, saltpeter, 
copperas, etc., are added according to the notions of the com- 
pounder. Turmeric is sometimes used to give a yellow color. 

As to these nostrums it may be said that vigorous, healthy 
animals do not make better use of their feed because of their 
addition. If animals are out of condition they should receive 
specific treatment according to their ailments. A good manager 
of live stock will have no use for these high-priced condimental 
foods or condition powders; a poor manager will never have fine 
stock by employing them. 



1 Rept. 1894. 

2 Rept. 1896. 



CHAPTEE XIV. 

SOILING CATTLE — PREPARATION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 
I. Soiling. 

364. Advantages of soiling. — By '^ soiling" is meant supplying 
forage fresh from the fields to farm stock more or less confined. 
The first American writer to bring this subject to the attention of 
our people was Josiah Quincy, whose admirable essays, first 
printed in the Massachusetts Agricultural Journal in 1820, were 
later gathered into a little book entitled ''The Soiling of Cattle," 
now out of print. 

Quincy points out six distinct advantages from soiling: First, 
the saving of land; second, the saving of fencing; third, the econo- 
mizing of food; fourth, the better condition and greater comfort 
of the cattle; fifth, the greater product of milk; sixth, the attain- 
ment of manure. 

According to this author there are six Mays in which farm 
animals destroj^ the articles destined for their food. First, by 
eating; second, by walking; third, by dunging; fourth, by staling; 
fifth, by lying down; sixth, by breathing on it. Of these six, the 
first only is useful; all the others are wasteful. 

Quincy reports his own experience where twenty cows, kept 
in stalls, were fed green food supplied six times a day. They 
were allowed exercise in an open yard. These twenty cows sub- 
sisted on the green crops from seventeen acres of land where fifty 
acres had previously been required. 

365. Station findings. — At the Wisconsin Station, i the writer 
kept three cows for the summer on an excellent blue-grass pasture. 
During the same period three other cows were maintained in 
stable and yard by soiling. The cows in the pasture consumed 

1 Rept. 1885. 



232 



Feeds and Feeding. 



the grass frori 3.7 acres; the soiled cows ate the forage from 1.5 

acres. The yield of forage was as follows: 

Pounds. 

Green clover, three cuttings 18,792 

Green fodder corn 23,658 

Green oats 2,385 

Waste from the above 1,655 

Total green forage eaten, from 1.5 acres 43,180 

The products obtained were as follows: 

Pasture and soiling crops compared — Wisconsin Station. 





From 3.7 
acres past- 
ure. 


From one 
acre past- 
ure. 


From 1.5 
acres soil- 
ing crops. 


From one 
acre soil- 
ing crops. 


Milk 


Lbs. 

6,583 
303 


Lbs. 

1,780 
82 


Lbs. 

7,173 
294 


Lbs. 

4 782 


Butter 


'l96 







This shows that in Wisconsin one acre of soiling crop equals 
about two and one-half acres of good blue- grass j)asture for feed- 
ing dairy cows. 

At the Pennsylvania Station, ^ during a test of soiling versus 
pasture, Armsby secured the following results in digestible organic 

matter and albuminoids: 

Digestible Digestible 

organic matter, albuminoids. 

Pounds. Pounds. 

Yield of one acre of pasture 1,12-5 249 

Yield of one acre of rye and corn 5,776 328 

Yield of one acre of clover and corn 5,914 374 

At the Connecticut (Storrs) Station, 2 Phelps maintained four 
cows from June 1 to NoA'ember 1 on soiling crops produced on 
two and one-half acres of land. 

At the Iowa Station, ^ Wilson maintained three cows in a dark- 
ened stable on soiling crops during the summer, while three 
others were given the range of ''one of the best blue-grass 
pastures in the state, well shaded with occasional trees and in 
places by dense woods, with water accessible." The trial began 
June 20, and continued until August 8, when the cows confined 

1 Kept. 1889. * Bui. 9. » Bui. 15. 



Soiling. 



233 



in the stable were turned to pasture and tliose whicli had been 
in pasture were soiled in the stable. The second part of the trial 
continued until September 26. The yield of milk and butter for 

the whole period was as follows: 

MUk, Fat, 

pounds. pounds. 

From three cows kept in stable 7,216 254 

From three cows in pasture 7,287 259 

The cattle kept indoors steadily gained in weight, while those 
in the pasture lost. 

366, Soiling crops. — Where cattle are maintained by soiling, 
provision should be made for a succession of green crops for con- 
tinuous feeding. In the table below, Lindsey^ gives the crops 
required for the complete soiling of ten cows: 

Ch'ops, and areas for same, for soiling ten cows during the entire 
summer — Massachusetts (Hatch) Station. 



Crop. 



Rye 

Wheat 

Red clover. 



Gi'ass and clover 

Vetch and oats. 
Vetch and oats.. 
Peas and oats ... 

Peas and oats ... 

Barnyard millet 
Barnyard millet 

Soja bean 

Corn 

Corn 

Hungarian 

Barley and peas 



Seed per acre. 



2bu 

2bu 

20 lbs 

i bu, red to|j... 

I bu. timotliy. 

10 lbs. r. clover 

f 3 bu. oats ) 

\ 50 lbs. vetch.../ 

50 lbs. vetch 

f IJ bu. Canada \ 

\ll bu. oats i 

f In bu. Canada \ 
\ l| bu. oats J 

1 peck 

1 peck 

18 quarts 



1 bu. 



f l^bu. peas... 
t l|bu. barley 



::} 



Time of 
seeding. 



Sept. 10-15 . 
Sept. 10-15 . 
July 15- Aug. 1 

Sept 



April 20. 
April 30. 
A.pril 20. 

April 30.. 

May 10.. 
Mav2.5.. 
May 20.. 
May 20.. 
May 30.. 
July 15... 

Aug. 5 ... 



Area. 



J acre 
I acre 
J acre 

f acre 



i] acre 
J acre 
^acre 

h acre 

iacre 
jacre 
I acre 
I acre 
I acre 
I acre 

lacre 



Time of cutting. 



May 20-May 30 
June 1-June 15 
June 15-June 25 

June 15-June 30 

June 25-July 10 
July 10-July 20 
June 25-JuIy 10 



July 

July 
Aug. 
Aug. 
Aug. 
Sept. 
Sept. 

Oct. 



10-July 20 

2.5- Aug. 20 
10-Aug, 20 
2.5-Sept. 15 
2.5-Sept. 10 
10-Sept. 20 
20-Sept. 30 

1-Oct. 20 



The above will prove a guide for many, though all may not 
be able to follow in detail all the directions given. ^ 

1 Bui. 39, INIass. (Hatch) Sta. 

2 For soiling crops recommended by Phelps, see Bui. 8, Conn. (Storrs) 
Sta. 



234 Feeds and Feeding. 

367. Labor involved. — Many who recognize the advantages of 
soiling are deterred from practicing it, arguing that the large 
amount of labor required in supplying the green forage daily 
more than offsets the benefits derived. There is both misconcep- 
tion and lack of knowledge on this point. Wilson ^ shows that if 
green forage is gathered twice a week, and spread not too thickly 
on the barn floor, it will keep in good condition until required for 
feeding. Most of the crops used can be cut with a mower and 
gathered by the hay rake or loaded directly by means of the hay 
loader. Even if pitched by hand, a large quantity of material 
can be gathered in a very short time. A dairy cow or steer will 
require from sixty to one hundred pounds of green forage daily. 

368. Partial soiling. — So revolutionary is the practice of com- 
plete soiling that few stockmen are ready to adopt it at once, even 
when conceding the merits of the system. Partial soiling is prac- 
ticable with all and should be followed on every well-managed 
stock farm. The usual midsummer shrinkage in the milk flow of 
dairy cows and of flesh with beef cattle can be prevented by hous- 
ing the stock in darkened stables, if flies are troublesome, during 
the heated portion of the day, and feeding them liberally with 
green forage. At night the cattle can be turned to pasture for 
exercise and grazing. Because of the extra allowance of proven- 
der supplied during the most trying time of the year, fattening 
steers will continue their gains, the young stock will not cease 
growing, and dairy cows will yield the normal flow of milk. 
Usually it will be found profitable to continue supplying extra 
feed during the Ml, even though the piistures have in part recov- 
ered their ability to supply nutriment. Partial soiling rightly 
followed will be found a most profitable practice on many farms. 
By it more stock can be kept than on pastures only, and more 
even gains will be made during the season by all stock so fed. 

In using soiling crops it should not be forgotten that growing, 
Immature plants consist largely of water, and often cattle cannot 
consume enough of such forage to gain the nourishment they 
require. For this reason, where the crops are quite green, some 
dry forage should be supplied in addition to the green. 

» Bui. 15, Iowa Sta. 



Freparation of Feeding Stuffs. 235 

The use of silage will greatly extend the practice of soiling. A 
corn crop stored in the fall may be partially fed out during winter 
and the remainder utilized as needed during the summer. Many 
dairymen are making use of the silo for summer feeding, with 
excellent results. 

Where lands are high priced, or where the stockman desires to 
keep a large number of cattle upon a limited acreage, soiling is 
the best possible means to that end. Cattle fed by soiling should 
always be allowed exercise in the open lot where they can enjoy 
the sunshine and fresh air. This can be provided by making use 
of a small pasture. 

II. Freparation of Feed for Live StocTc. 

369. Concerning cooked feed. — The early writers on agriculture 
usually recommended the cooking or steaming of all kinds of feed. 
In 1812 xVrthur Young ^ described a gruel for stock which he 
claimed to be exceedingly nutritious and economical. 

Morton, author of the* Cyclopedia of Agriculture, recommended 
cooking or steaming feed. Later writers, however, have advanced 
the strongest arguments. 

Prof. Mapes wrote r^ ''Eaw food is not in condition to be ap- 
proximated to the tissues of animal life. The experiment, often 
tried, has proved that eighteen or nineteen pounds of cooked corn 
are equal to fifty pounds of raw corn for hog feed." 

Joseph Sullivant, a member of the Ohio State Board of Agri- 
culture, wrote :'^ '^I conclude that nine x>ounds of pork from a 
bushel of raw corn fed in the ear, twelve pounds from raw meal, 
thirteen and a half pounds from boiled corn, and sixteen and a 
half pounds from cooked meal, is no more than a moderate aver- 
age the feeder may expect to realize from a bushel of corn under 
ordinary circumstances of weather, with dry and clean feeding 
pens. All this is within the amounts we have shown to be prob- 
able and attainable upon our chemical basis." 

Other authorities could be quoted, but these suffice to show that 
the teachers were generally in favor of cooking food for stock. 

1 A system of preparing: corn, etc., for the cheaper feeding of horses, etc. 

2 Trans. Am. Inst., 1854, p. 373. 

3 Kept. Ohio Bd. Agr., 1809. 



236 FeedH and Feeding. 

So mucli for theory: — what are the results of experiment and 
experience ? 

370. Steaming roughage for cattle. — Fifty years ago there 
could be found in this country a number of establishments, more 
or less elaborate and expensive, designed for the purpose of 
steaming or boiling forage for cattle. The work was usually 
undertaken by men of means, and was sometimes carried out 
with much detail and often at considerable expense. It is signif- 
icant that none of these practices was long maintained. 

Experiments with feeding steamed hay to oxen, made at Pop- 
elsdorf, ^ showed very decisively that steaming rendered the com- 
ponents of hay less digestible; especially was this true of the 
protein. When the hay was fed dry, 46 per cent, of the protein 
was digested, while only 3D per cent, was digested from the 
steamed hay. (664) 

"We may summarize the results of cooking coarse forage for 
cattle by quoting the reply to an inquirer given many years ago 
by the editor of an agricultural journal: 2 ''The advantages are 
very slight and not worth the trouble of either building the fire, 
cutting the wood or erecting the apparatus, to say nothing of all 
these combined, with danger and iiLSurance added." 

371. Cooking feed for swine. — While the practice of steaming 
roughage for cattle has been universally abandoned wherever 
undertaken, much is still said concerning the advantages of cook- 
ing feed for swine. This subject has been carefully investigated 
at our Stations with practically concordant results, so that we are 
not without definite help on an important topic. 

Elsewhere (836) is given a summary of numerous trials with 
cooked and uncooked feed for swine conducted at the Experiment 
Stations of this country with the surprising result of an average 
loss of 6 per cent, in the value of the feed because of cooking. 
The reader will be interested in the oi)inions of the various ex- 
perimenters who conducted the feeding trials. 

Shelton, ^ concluding an account of a feeding trial where cooked 

1 Hornberger, Landw. Jahrb. VIII, 933; see Annsby, Manual of Cat- 
tle Feeding, p. 266. 

2 Country Gentleman, 1861, p. 112. 

a Rept. Prof. Agr., Ivan. Agr. Col., 1885. 



Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. 237 

corn proved inferior to uncooked, wrote: ''The figures given 
above need but little comment. They show as conclusively as 
figures can show anything that the cooked corn was less useful 
than the raw grain. . . . Such an entire unanimity of results 
can only be explained upon the theory that the cooking was an 
injurious process so far as its use for food for fattening animals is 
concerned." 

Brown, of the Ontario Agricultural College, ^ conducted several 
trials with cooked and uncooked peas and corn and gives his con- 
clusions as follows: ''I am not at present prepared to say defi- 
nitely what other kinds of food may do, raw or cooked, with pigs 
or other domestic animals, or how the other animals will thrive 
with peas or corn, raw or boiled, but I now assert, on the strongest 
possible grounds, .... that for fast and cheap production 
of pork raw peas are fifty per cent, better than cooked peas or 
Indian corn in any shape." 

The trustees of the Maine College, ' summing np the results 
obtained at that institution of nine years' continuous feeding of 
cooked and uncooked corn meal to pigs, wrote: "The results 
have in every case pointed to the superior value of uncooked 
meal for the production of pork." 

No one can review the accumulation of experimental data from 
our Stations, all substantially adverse to cooking feed for swine, 
without being convinced that the matter is practically settled so 
far as most feeding stuffs are concerned. A few feeds appear to 
require the modifying influence of heat and moisture to render 
them palatable and digestible with stock. Potatoes cannot be 
successfully fed to swine in any quantity unless they are first 
cooked, and roots are more palatable if cooked and meal is added 
to the mass. The writer has shown that pigeon-grass seed must 
be cooked to be satisfactorily consumed by swine. This treat- 
ment is doubtless made necessary by the thick, woody seed- coats 
of this grain. 

Feeders should not confuse the effects of cooked feeds upon farm 
stock with the advantages of supplying them with warm feed in 
palatable form. To the assertion that stockmen who cook feed 

1 Eept. 1876. 2 Rept. Me. State Col., 1878. 



238 Feeds and Feeding. 

have the finest animals, the writer ventures the opinion that one 
who is willing to cook feed will usually give his animals many- 
attentions which feeders generally pass by as not worthy of their 
time or notice. It is this extra care and the larger variety of 
feeds usually supplied rather than the cooking which make ani- 
mals of superior quality. For the purpose of affording variety, 
the various grains, roots and tubers, together with clover or 
alfalfa chaff, may be boiled or steamed for pigs and used as a part 
of the ration. The advantages of a limited quantity of such feed, 
when grain constitutes the remainder of the ration, are con- 
ceded. 

372. Cooked feed for horses. — Supplying a limited quantity of 
cooked feed to horses is practiced to some extent in Europe and 
this country. MacNeilage ^ reports that the use of boiled feed 
for horses is growing less common in the west of Scotland. 

An excellent feed for horses is made by boiling barley and oats 
in a kettle with considerable water and pouring the mass over • 
chaffed hay, allowing the whole to stand until the hay is well 
softened. Bran, roots and a small quantity of oil meal may be 
added to the pottage. Boiled feed is useful with colts, brood 
mares and stallions when fed two or three times a week. It may 
be fed once a day to draft horses which are in prei^aration for sale 
or exhibition. 

373. Artificial digestion trials. — At the New York (Geneva) 
Station, 2 Ladd determined artificially the digestibility of the 
nitrogenous portion of several common feeding stuffs before and 
after cooking, with the results shown below: 

DiffesUon trials with cooked and uncoolcod feeding stuffs — New 
York {Geneva) Station. 



Feeding stuff. 



Fresh corn meal.. 

Old coi'u meal 

Clover hay 

Cotton-seed meal. 



Per cent, nitrogenous sub- 
stance digested. 



Uncooked. 



68.6 
72.6 
67.7 
87.7 



Cooked. 



60.5 
63.2 
53.3 

73.8 



1 Trans. High, and Agr. Soc, 1890. 2 Kept. 1885. 



Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. 239 

In Qverj instance more of the nitrogenous substance was digested 
from the uncooked than from the cooked food. These results are 
substantiated by the investigations of others. 

374. The function of cooked food. — A limited allowance of 
steamed or cooked grain mingled with chaffed hay or roots is 
helpful to horses because of favorable action on the digestive tract. 
Growing pigs and breeding swine are often materially aided by a 
reasonable allowance of boiled or steamed clover or alfalfa chaff, 
roots or tubers to which meal has been added. Such food i)os- 
sesses considerable volume — a desirable characteristic for feeds 
designed for the class of stock mentioned. It is not conceded 
that feeds are generally rendered more digestible by the action of 
moist heat, but rather that their palatability has been increased 
and the physical character of the compounds thus prepared 
made such as to render them desirable for animals under cer- 
tain conditions. As a general proposition it may be stated that 
it does not pay to cook food for stock when such food will be satis- 
factorily consumed without cooking, for cooking does not increase 
the digestibility of feeding stuffs, but may lower it, and there is 
considerable expense involved in the operation. 

375. Soaking feed. — Corn often becomes hard and flinty a few 
months after husking, and causes sore mouths with fattening 
animals. So little of such feed is then eat«n that gains may en- 
tirely cease or the animals even fall back in weight. Grain which 
is difficult of mastication should either be ground or soaked to 
such degree of softness as will allow the animals to consume full 
rations without difficulty. Soaking can hardly increase the digesti- 
bility of feeds, though it may indirectly do so by permitting bet- 
ter mastication and thereby more complete action of the digestive 
fluids. (477, 537, 665, 758, 837) 

376. Chaff, or cut hay and straw. — The practice of rmming hay 
and straw through the feed cutter, or chaffing it, is almost uni- 
versal in establishments where large numbers of horses are kept; 
it is not common on ordinary stock farms. Moore ^ some years 
since addressed letters to well-known agriculturists of England 
asking for information on this topic. He ascertained that 70 per 

1 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1.S88. 



240 Feeds and Feeding. 

cent, of those replying cliatfed tlie hay and straw fed their stock, 
while 20 per cent, followed partial chaffing, and 10 per cent, were 
adverse to the practice. 

377. Advantages of chaffing. — The advantages of chaffing (cut- 
ting) hay in establishments where large numbers of animals are 
fed are apparent upon a little reflection. In such places the 
hay if long occupies too much space, litters up the building, and 
the attendants are not readily able to supply each animal its 
proper allowance. Where hay is chaffed, the addition of a small 
amount of water lays the dust, and the helper can rapidly and 
accurately measure the quantity ordered for each animal. These 
advantages do not hold with the same force on stock farms, where 
the feeder personally supervises the supply of provender to a 
comparatively limited number of animals. Again, when hay and 
straw are chaffed, then moistened, and meal added, the mixture 
is in condition to be rapidly masticated and swallowed, so that the 
nutriment has a longer time to remain in the stomach for diges- 
tion than is possible where long, dry hay is fed. This is an item 
of importance with hard-worked horses which are in the stable 
only at night. Horses not hard worked, fattening cattle, and 
farm stock generally, have ample time for mastication and diges- 
tion, and with these there is less necessity, or none, for chaffing 
hay and straw. 

378. Cutting and shredding corn forage. — Corn forage, because 
of the coarseness of the stalks, is an unsatisfactory material to 
handle in the stable unless it has first been run through the cutter 
or shredder. Eeduced to fragments by cutting or shredding, this 
forage causes little trouble, and the waste, if any, is excellent for 
bedding. 

The value of cut or shredded corn stalks for feeding purposes 
will vary according to the chai'acter of the fodder used, the 
animals to which it is fed and the manner of feeding. 

At the Kansas Station, ^ Shelton experimented with stover cut 
in lengths varying from one-fourth inch to two inches, the trials 
extending through three seasons. Instead of most of the cut 
fodder being consumed by the cows, there was an average waste 

1 Rept. 1889. 



Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. 



241 



of 31 per cent, of all the cut fodder. During one season's trial it 
was observed that the finer the fodder was cut the larger the pro- 
portion of waste. This investigator summarized his conclusions 
for Kansas conditions as follows: ''I am abundantly satisfied from 
accurate experiments made to test the point, and from a large gen- 
eral experience, that the chief, almost only, value of cutting fodder 
is found in the fact that such chopped fodder can be placed in the 
manger and generally handled much more conveniently than the 
unchopped." 

379. Results of shredding stover. — Quite contrary results were 
obtained by the writer in a series of trials at the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion, 1 in which shredded corn fodder or stover was used. In these 
trials the same amount of grain and hay was fed to each lot of cows 
on trial. Those fed whole roughage were supplied with such quan- 
tity as seemed necessary to their wants, for they could not be 
made to consume the coarser portions of the long stalks, with the 
partial exception next noted. In the third trial Stowell's Ever- 
green sweet corn fodder, carrying a considerable quantity of ears, 
was fed. The stalks of this fodder were soft and pliable, and 
when fed whole the cows consumed almost all of them, leaving 
only 143 pounds of stalks out of 1,600 pounds of fodder fed. 



Summary of three trials when feeding shredded and unshredded corn 
forage to dairy cows — Wisconsin Station. 





Stover 
fed. 


Stover 
eaten. 


Milk 
produced. 


First trial. 
Shredded stover 


Lbs. 

721 
1,133 


Lbs. 

All 
975 


Lbs. 
1,387 


Uncut stover 


1,419 






Second trial. 
Shredded stover 


1,217 
1,934 


All 
1,356 


1,418 


Uncut stover 


1,439 






Third trial. 
Shredded fodder 


1,600 
1,600 


All 
1,457 


989 


Uncut fodder 


872 







Rept. 1886. 
16 



242 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Summarizing tlie i)receding data, we have: When feeding corn 
forage with hay and grain, the cows getting — 

3,538 pounds shredded stover or fodder produced 3,794 pounds of milk. 
4,667 pounds unshredded stover or fodder produced 3,730 pounds of milk. 

If we count the milk returns equal for the two lots, — though 
they are slightly in favor of the cows getting the shredded fod- 
der, — we have a saving of 24 per cent, of corn forage by using it 
in shredded form. 

Here are different results from those secured by Shelton. How 
can they be harmonized ? In the first place, the stalks used by 
Shelton were much coarser and harsher than those grown in Wis- 
consin, and it is probable that his cattle were offered such liberal 
quantities of forage that they naturally chose the softer portions, 
wasting the remainder. Again, it is possible that the sharp edges 
of the fine- cut corn stalks made the mouths of the cattle core, so 
that they could not cat forage as they otherwise would. 

380. Long hay and dry feed. — At the Maine Station,' Jordan 
fed rations of long hay and chaffed hay as follows: 

During the first and third periods, each lasting thirty days, five 
cows were fed long hay with an allowance of dry grain fed sep- 
arately. During the intermediate period the cows were fed the 
same amount of hay chopped fine, with the same quantity of meal 
as before. The cut hay and meal were first mixed, then wet, 
and the mixture allowed to stand for several hours before feeding. 
The middle period lasted fifty- one days. 

Yield of milk and lutter from cows fed wet and dry rations — Maine 

Station. 



Periods. 


Average yield, five cows. 


Milk. 


Butter. 


T TiOnfr liav fpd drv 


Lbs. 

130.1 
100.5 


Lbs. 
5.4 


TTT Tifino" linv fpd drv 


3.8 








115.3 
113.2 


4.6 


II. Hay chafted mixed with grain, fed wet.. 


4.24 



Kept. 1890. 



Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. 



243 



"We learn from the above tliat the cows did somewhat better on 
the long hay and dry feed, both for milk and butter, than on the 
same feed supplied in chaff form, wet and mixed with grain. 

381. Wet chaffed hay for calves. — At the Iowa Station, i Speer 
divided a bunch of six calves into two lots of three each. To one 
lot was fed corn and cob meal morning and evening, with dry, long 
timothy hay given after the meal had been consumed. For the 
other lot the feeding was as follows: Some hay was run through 
the feed-cutter and moistened. Over this was sprinkled the corn 
and cob meal, and the whole thoroughly mixed. An hour and a 
half after the w et grain and hay mixture had been fed the calves 
were supplied with dry, long hay. 

Feeding dry meal, and meal on moistened hay, to calves — Iowa Station. 



Meal fed dry 

Meal fed wet, mixed with hay . 



Average 
weight at 
beginning. 


Average 
gain. 


Lbs. 

452 

480 


Lbs. 

75.8 
68.4 



Grain for 

100 pounds 

gain. 

Lbs. 

542 
600 



It will be seen that the calves fed the dry meal gained some- 
what more than the others, and required less feed for one hundred 
pounds of gain. 

382. Grinding grain. — This subject is a difficult one to discuss 
owing to the great variety of conditions existing as to both grain 
and animals. Directions are here given which may serve to 
guide the feeder in his practice. For horses which are out of the 
stable during the day and worked hard, all grain, with the possible 
exception of oats, should be ground. For those at extremely hard 
work, all grain should be ground and mixed with chaffed hay. 
For idle horses, oats or corn should not be ground, nor need the 
hay or straw be chaffed. A cow yielding a large flow of milk 
should be regarded as a hard-working animal and her feed pre- 
pared accordingly. (633) Fattening steers and pigs may be 
crowded more rapidly with meal than with whole grain, though 
there is more danger attendant upon its use. (536, 539) Sheep 



» Bui. 12. 



244 Feeds and Feeding. 

worth feeding can always grind their own grain. In general, idle 
animals and those having ample time for mastication, rumination 
and digestion do not need their grain or roughage prepared as 
carefully as do those with only limited time for these essential 
operations. Experiments quite generally show increased gains 
from grinding grain, but in many cases they are not sufficient to 
pay the cost of grinding. (848) 

383. Preparing roots. — Roots are prepared for stock either by 
slicing or pulping. For sheep they should be cut into small, short 
pieces. Eoots reduced to pulp are fed with chaffed hay and straw 
to steers and cows with excellent results. The method of prep- 
aration is as follows: A layer of chaffed hay or straw is spread 
upon the barn floor and over this is placed one of root-pulp, fol- 
lowed by chaff, and then pulp again until the heap reaches the 
desired size. Sometimes oil meal, corn meal or other grain is 
added. After forming the layers the mass is shoveled over 
until the ingredients are thoroughly mixed, after which it is al- 
lowed to stand until the next day, by which time a slight fermen- 
tation has started and the mixture is ready for feeding. This 
system has value on farms where it is desirable to feed large 
quantities of straw or low-grade hay which would otherwise be 
refused or wasted by the animals. The serious objection to the 
practice is the large amount of labor involved, yet it is advan- 
tageous in some cases. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE ENSILAGE OF FODDERS. 

I. Silage. 
Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Variety of silage. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 


Corn 


Lbs. 

20.9 
28.0 
28.9 
27.5 
32.0 
20.7 
25.8 

21.0 
24.0 


Lbs. 

0.9 
2.0 
0.6 
3.0 
1.9 
1.5 
2.7 

1.6 
1.6 


Lbs. 

11.3 
13.5 
14.9 

8.5 

13.4 

8.6 

8.7 

9.2 
13.0 


Lbs. 

0.7 
1.0 
0.2 
1.9 
1.6 
0.9 
1.3 

0.7 
0.7 


Lbs. 

2.8 


Lbs. 

1.1 


Lba. 
3 7 


Clover 




Sorghum. 








Alfalfa 








Orass 








Cowpeavine 








Soja bean 








Barn-yard millet and soja 
bean 








Corn and soja bean 










1 





384. Permanency of this method of food preservation. — For 

more than two decades the subject of silos and silage has been 
prominently before the American farmer for consideration. Much 
space has been given to the matter by the agricultural press 
and much time devoted to discussions in relation thereto in agri- 
cultural gatherings. Unfortunately for this form of food preser- 
vation extravagant claims were advanced in its behalf by some 
of its early enthusiastic advocates. These naturally aroused the 
suspicion of conservative people, who looked upon the matter as 
something for the day only and unworthy of thoughtful consider- 
ation or investigation. Silos and silage have outlasted their over- 
zealous friends, and through the experience of practical feeders 
and the investigations of our Experiment Stations we are now 
able to discuss the subject intelligently. Because corn is the great 
silo crop, a consideration of the matter turns upon the relative 



246 



Feeds and Feeding. 



merits of fodder corn dried in the ordinary way and preserved by 
the system of ensilage. 

385. Relative losses in drying and ensilage. — The follo^ying 
table presents data gathered at several Stations relative to the 
losses incurred in preserving green corn forage by shocking and by 
ensilage. In these trials a quantity of fodder was cut and placed 
in the shock or stook. In some cases the shocks remained in the 
field untouched until winter j in others they were made into 
larger shocks, or were placed in the barn for protection. At the 
time of cutting and shocking the corn, another equal portion from 
the same field was placed in the silo. 

^Relative losses incident to curing corn fodder hy drying and by en- 
silage — Various Staiions. 



Station. 



Vermont, Rept. 1889 

Vermont, Rept. 1891 

Vei-mont, Rept. 1892 

Vermont, Rept. 1894 

New Jersey, Bui. 19 

Pennsylvania, Rept. 1889 

Wisconsin Rept. 1891, av. four years. 



Corn silage. 



Dry 

matter. 



Percent 

14.7 
20.0 
18.0 
20.0 
18.0 
10.8 
15.6 



Protein, 



Percent 


13 





11 





12 






26.5 
16.8 



Corn fodder. 



Dry 
matter. 



Percent 

13.6* 

19.0 

18.0 

20.0 

17.3 

21.0 

23.8 



Protein. 



Percent 



17.0 

9.0 

12.0 



13.8 
24.3 



* Large shocks; 15.1 per cent, for small shocks. 

The figures show the range of losses which may occur by either 
process of preserving fodders. It is evident that the systems, as 
commonly practiced, possess about equal merit in the proportion 
of nutriment they conserve. 

386. Necessary losses in silage. — In considering the losses of 
silage the waste found in the top layer, which acts as a cover for 
the material below, has always been taken into account. This 
loss is a constant one, being no more for a deep silo than for a 
shallow one. By using fresh grass, wet chaff or other cheap ma- 
terial for covering, or by beginning to feed from the silo imme- 
diately after filling, the loss commonly occurring in the top layer 
may be reduced or entirely avoided. 



The Ensilage of Fodders. 



241 



King, studying the subject at the Wisconsin Station ^ with a 
round silo, concludes after four years' experience that, omitting 
the losses found in the top layer and those which may occur at the 
bottom of the silo, the other losses need not exceed ten per cent, 
of dry matter for corn and eighteen per cent, for red clover. 

387. Character of silo losses. — At the Maine Station, 2 Jordan 
investigated this subject during three years, with the findings 
presented in the following table: 

Composition of water free substances in green corn and silage made 
therefrom — Maine Station. 



Constituent. 



Ash, pure 

Nitrogen X 6.25 , 

Crude fiber 

Other carbohydrates , 

Ether extract 

Total nitrogen 

Albuminoid nitrogen, di- 
rect determination 

Amide nitrogen, by dif- 
ference 

Percentage of total non- 
albuminoid nitrogen, by 
difference 



1881. 



Green 
corn. 



Perot. 

5.0 

6.5 

24.2 

62.3 

1.9 



1.1 
0.9 
0.1 

13.3 



Silage. 

Per ct. 

5.5 

7.2 
27.4 
57.0 

2.9 



1.2 
0.6 
0.6 

50.4 



1882, 



Green 
corn. 



Per ct. 

3.7 

8.0 

35.2 

51.0 

2.0 



1.3 
1.0 
0.3 

13.3 



Silage. 



Per ct, 

4.0 

8.9 

35.7 

49.2 

2.3 



1.4 

0.6 
0.8 

33.1 



1883. 



corn" ^^^^Se* Silage. 



Per ct. 

3.3 

7.3 

29.8 

57.7 

2.4 



1.2 

0.8 
0.4 

29.9 



Per ct. 

3.7 

7.5 
34.0 
52.1 

2.8t 



1.2 
0.5 
0.7 

58.5 



Per ct. 
3.7 
7.3 

33.8 
52.6 
2.8t 



1.2 
0.6 
0.6 

52.6 



* Dried quiclily . f Assumed. 

"We learn from the above table that in the process of ensilage 
the crude fiber of the corn plant is not reduced or changed by the 
heat and moisture of the silo. The other carbohydrates, consti- 
tuting as they do the more valuable non -nitrogenous portion of 
the forage, are diminished percentagely and in total quantity. 
The ether extract is increased through the formation of lactic 
acid. We further observe that a considerable portion of the al- 
buminoid nitrogen in the green forage is changed to amide nitro- 
gen. This reduction of organic nitrogen from albuminoid to 
simpler forms has been held to indicate a large loss in the feeding 



1 Bui. 59. 

2 Soc. Pro. Agr. Sci., 1884. 



248 



Feeds and Feeding. 



value of the protein constituents of silage, a fact not borne out by- 
direct feeding tests. (655) 

388. Digestibility of silage and fodder corn. — Tbe studies of tlie 
chemists on this subject have been arranged by WolP in the fol- 
lowing table: 

Average digestion coefficients for corn silage and green and cured fod- 
der corn — Arranged by Woll. 



Forage. 


Dry 

matter. 


Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


N.-free 
extract. 


Ether 
extract. 


Green fodder corn 


68 
66 
66 


35 
34 
31 


61 
55 
53 


61 
66 
67 


74 
69 
70 


74 


Cured fodder corn 


72 


Corn silage 


81 







So far as this table shows, there is no appreciable difference in 
the digestibility of corn silage and dry fodder corn, both being 
somewhat less digestible than green fodder. 

389. Yield of milk per hundred pounds of dry matter. — At 

several Stations feeding trials were so conducted that a compari- 
son can be made of the yield of milk from the same quantity of 
dry matter fed in silage and dry corn fodder respectively. 

Milk produced from drymatter in silage and dry fodder corn — Vari- 
ous Stations. 





No. 
trials. 


Basis of calculation. 


Milk produced 
per 100 pounds. 


Station and reference. 


Silage. 


Fodder 
corn. 


Wisconsin, 7th Report 

Wisconsin, 8th Report 

Vermont 1892 Report 


o 

1 
1 

1 

3 
3 
1 


Drj'^ matter in: 
Wliole ration 


Lbs. 

76.9 

70.4 

82.0 

73.5 

111.9 

155.0 

166.2 

240.0 


Lbs. 
86.0 


Wliole ration 


78.7 


Whole ration 


76 5 


Vermont 18i)2 Report 


Whole ration 


73 4 


Pennsylvania, 1890 Report... 

Wisconsin, 6th Report 

Wisconsin, 5th Report 

Vermont 1891 Report 


Wliole ration 


106.3 


Exptl. forage only 
Exptl. forage only 
Exptl. forage only 


146.1 
149. G 
218 







Reviewing the table we observe that excepting the first and 
second trials there were larger returns of milk, when feeding a 



» A Book on Silage. 



Tlie Ensilage of Fodders. 249 

given quantity of dry matter in the form of silage, than from the 
same amount of dry matter in the dry fodder. The average for 
the eight trials is about four per cent, more milk from the dry 
matter in the form of silage. 

390. Feeding tests with silage and fodder corn. — Feeding tests 
with silage and fodder corn made at the Vermont ^ and Wiscon- 
sin 2 Stations were conducted as follows: In each case two rows 
of corn across the field were cut and placed in shocks, while the 
next two rows were run through the feed- cutter and placed in the 
silo. By thus alternating until the silo was filled, equal quanti- 
ties of material of the same composition were obtained. The 
dried fodder so produced was run through the feed- cutter and fed 
in opposition to the silage to dairy cows, with equal quantities of 
hay and grain. 

The results at the Vermont Station were as follows: 

14,262 pounds green fodder corn when dried, fed with a uniform daily 
allowance of hay and grain, produced 7,688 pounds of milk. 

14,262 pounds of green fodder corn converted into silage, and fed with 
the same daily ration of hay and grain, produced 8,525 pounds of milk. 

At the Wisconsin Station the results were: 

From 29,800 pounds of green fodder were obtained 24,440 pounds of 
silage, which, fed with 1,648 pounds of hay and 2,884 pounds of grain, 
produced 7,496 pounds of milk, containing 340.4 pounds of fat. 

From 29,800 pounds of green fodder were obtained 7,330 pounds of field- 
cured fodder corn, which, fed with 1,567 pounds of hay and 2,743 pounds 
of grain, produced 7,119 pounds of milk, containing 318.2 pounds of fat. 

At the Vermont Station the silage ration produced 837 pounds 
or 11 per cent, more milk than was obtained from the dry fodder 
ration. 

At the Wisconsin Station the silage ration yielded 377 pounds 
more milk and 22 pounds more fat — a difference in favor of 
silage of 5 per cent, in milk and 6 per cent, in fat. 

391. Relative merits of silage and dry fodder corn. — We have 
seen that the losses of nutrients in the two methods of curing are 
about equal. We have further learned that the digestibility of 

1 Rept. 1891. 

2 Rept. 1891. 



250 Feeds and Feeding. 

corn silage and of dry fodder is practically the same. Finally, 
actual feeding trials with dairy cows have shown that silage usu- 
ally gives better results than a corresponding amount of dry fodder. 
The difference in favor of silage is probably due in part to the 
fact that cattle usually reject the dry butts of the corn stalk, 
even when cut fine, while in silage this part is readily eaten. 
ThiLS, with a given amount of forage of either kind, somewhat 
more of that in the form of silage is consumed. Again, silage is 
more acceptable to stock than dry fodder, and a larger amount 
of dry matter is consumed in the same time, which conduces to 
greater gains in flesh or larger yields of milk. Because the ani- 
mal willingly eats more food in the shape of silage, there is more 
nutriment left to form milk or flesh after the wants of the body 
are met. 

It is a significant fact that the largest users of silage declare the 
most strongly in favor of this forage. (654—5) 

392. Effects of silage on the carcass. — At the Utah Station, ^ 
Sanborn found that the flesh of steers fed silage contained six per 
cent, and that of sheep two per cent, more water than the flesh 
of other animals of the same kind receiving dry forage. Like 
roots, silage makes a watery carcass, which is soft to the touch. 
Some have considered this a disadvantage. Is it not rather a 
desirable condition, within reasonable limits, for all farm stock, 
including fattening animals during the earlier stages of that pro- 
cess? 

Feeding dry forage only during the long winters tends to f) re- 
duce a dry, firm flesh — a condition certainly not conducive to 
the highest degree of health if summer pastures afford the ideal 
feed. While silage is highly useful in the preliminary stages 
of steer feeding, and its continued use in moderate quantity 
throughout the fattening period is desirable, the proportion of 
this succulent food to dry forage should be diminished as fatten- 
ing advances, in order that the flesh may become more solid. 

393. Yield of silage corn and roots. — Corn silage and roots both 
claim the feeder's interest because of their palatability and succu- 
lence. Since they are equally relished by stock, the choice between 

1 Bui. 8. 



Tlie Ensilage of Fodders. 



251 



them must finally turn upon tlie amount of nutriment produced 
from a given area of land and the cost of production. Woll ^ 
presents the following table, showing the green substance and the 
dry matter yielded by both crops at four Stations: 

Yield and dry matter per acre of roots and gt^een fodder corn — Four 

Stations. 





Maine Station. 


Pennsylvania 

Station. 


Ohio Station. 


Ontario 
College. 


Crops compared. 


Green 
sub- 
stance. 


Dry 
matter 


Green 
sub- 
stance. 


Dry 

matter 


Green 
sub- 
stance. 


Dry 

matter 


Green 
sub- 
stance. 


Dry 

matter 


Ruta-bagas 


Lbs. 

31,695 
15,375 
28,500 
17,64.5 
39,645 


Lbs. 

3,415 
1,613 

2,559 
2,590 
5,580 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

42,780 
55,320 
46,120 
32,663 
41,172 


Lbs. 

4,877 


Mangels 

Turnips 


16,177 


2,382 


31,500 


3,000 


5,034 

4,382 


Sugar beets 


11,436 
18,591 


2,010 
5,522 






4,737 


Fodder corn 




6,000 


8,135 









It is seen that fodder corn yields about twice the dry matter 
that can be secured from a crop of roots grown on the same land. 

394. Dry matter in silage and roots. — The value of the dry 
matter of roots and silage for milk production has been studied 
at the Ohio, ^ Pennsylvania ^ and Vermont* Stations with the fol- 
lowing results: 

Milk produced by feeding one hundred pounds of dry matter in corn 
silage and beets — Three Stations. 





Beets. 


Corn 

silage. 


Obio Station: 

1889 


Lbs. 

59 
59 
62 
69 
87 
113 


Lbs. 
62 


1890 


60 


1891 


66 


1892 


76 


Pennsylvania Station 


82 


Vermont Station 


119 







It will be seen that although practically all of the dry matter 
of beets is digestible, while a considerable portion of that in corn 
silage is not, dairy cows, when fed rations consisting largely of 



^ A Book on Silage. 

2 Kept. 1893. 3 Kept. 1890. •• Rept. 1895. 



252 Feeds and Feeding. 

beets or silage, yield somewliat better returns for the dry matter in 
tbe silage. The difference in favor of the dry matter of silage 
in these six trials is three per cent. 

395. Relative cost of beets and silage. — Armsby, of the Penn- 
sylvania Station, ^ estimates the cost of one acre of corn placed 
in the silo at $21.12, while t« grow and house an acre of beets 
costs $56.70. 

At the Ohio Station, 2 Thorne reports that an acre of beets, 
harvesting 15f tons and containing 3,000 pounds of dry matter, 
cost as much as an acre of corn yielding 57 bushels of grain and 
containing 6,000 pounds of dry matter. The great disadvantage 
of roots in competition with corn silage is here made apparent. 
(550, 765) 

396. Removing the ears from silage corn previous to ensilage. — 
About the year 1890 the agricultural press contained favorable 
notices of a system of silage making, which in brief is as fol- 
lows: The ripening ears of corn are removed from the stalks 
and cured on the barn floor or elsewhere under cover. The corn 
stalks freed from the ears are then run through the feed-cutter 
and preserved as silage. At feeding time a part of the dry ear 
corn reduced to meal is fed to cattle with the silage. It was 
claimed that this was an economical practice. Woll summarizes 
the results at the Wisconsin Station, ^ where silage from equal 
areas of land was used, thus: 

33,750 pounds of silage, with ears, fed in addition to hay and grain (the 
feed containing 17,127.5 pounds of dry matter in all), produced 11,835 
pounds of milk. 

27,571 pounds of silage with ears picked off, plus 4,341 pounds of dry 
ear corn, in addition to hay and grain as before (the feed containing 
16,491.7 jDounds of dry matter in all), produced 11,423 pounds of milk. 

Hills, of the Vermont Station, * reports that an acre of green 
corn fodder, including ears, reduced to silage, was equal in feed- 
ing value to 1.26 acres of silage from stalks stripped of their 
ears, fed with the meal made by grinding the dry ear corn which 

1 Bui. 26. 

2 Rept. 1893. 

3 Kepts. 1891, 1892. 
* Rept. 1892. 



The Ensilage of Fodders. 



253 



was produced by the crop. These trials show that the practice 
of separating and drying the ear corn in silage making is not 
warranted by the results, and that it is better to run the ear corn 
into the silo with the fodder. 

397. Southern versus Northern seed corn for silage. — Digestion 
trials conducted during five years at the Maine Station ^ by 
Jordan showed that sixty-five per cent, of the dry matter in the 
Southern corn silage was digestible as against seventy-three per 
cent, in the silage from corn of home-grown varieties. 

Digestion trials were also conducted at the Pennsylvania Sta- 
tion 2 during three years by Armsby. In the following table are 
given the findings of the Maine and Pennsylvania Stations from 
direct trials, and similar data from three other Stations, the Maine 
coefficients of digestibility being used in calculating the data 
given in the last column of the table: 

Green iceigJit, dry matter and digestible substance per acre in corn 
forage from southern- and northern-grown seed — Five Stations. 





Green 
weight. 


Dry 

matter. 


Digestible 
substance. 


Maine — 7 trials, 5 years. 
Southern corn 


Lbs. 

34,761 
22,269 


Lbs. 

5,036 
4,224 


Lbs. 
3 251 


Field corn 


3 076 






Pennmjlvania — S years. 
Southern corn 


32,321 
18.606 


7,993 
6,177 


5,042 


Dent corn 


4,149 






Cornell.* 
White Southern corn 


34,060 
16.980 


7,320 
4,102 


4 758 


Pride of the North corn 


2 953 






Wi^consi.n.-\ 
B. & W. silage com 


47,040 
24,890 


8,329 
7,263 


5 414 


Dent corn 


5 229 






Minnesofa.t 
Southern com 


43,000 
19,500 


7,98;5 
4,518 


3,887 


Dent corn 


2 911 







*Bul. 16. fRept. 1888. J Bui. 40. 

The table shows larger yields of green forage in every instance 



1 Rept. 1893. 

2 Rept. 1892. 



254 Feeds and Feeding. 

from Sonthern corn, wliicli likewise leads in dry matter and total 
digestible substance, although percentagely lower in digestibility, 
as shown by Jordan. 

398. When to use Southern corn for silage. — From the table it 
appears that we are assured of larger returns of total dry and 
digestible matter at the North by the use of large Southern varie- 
ties of corn. Southern corn should not be grown for either silo 
or forage purposes, however, unless the climatic conditions per- 
mit the ears to develop grains of corn which reach the glazing stage 
at time of harvest. This variety of corn will prove a favorite for 
both silage and dry forage where there is an urgent demand for 
the largest possible amount of coarse, palatable forage from a 
given acreage. By the use of Southern varieties of seed corn at 
the North the stockman can provide an enormous quantity of 
roughage from a given area. 

On the other hand the stockman who has a fair supply of hay, 
straw or stover at command will fill his silo with a richer feed- 
ing stuff than that produced by Southern corn, and for this pur- 
pose will use varieties of flint or dent corn which will fully 
mature in his locality, planting the crop in such manner as to 
secure a relatively large proportion of grain to roughage. Silage 
made from the smaller varieties of corn, carrying a considerable 
proportion of ears, will prove a rich feeding stuff which will 
materially reduce the necessity for additional grain. Corn silage, 
which is rich in carbohydrates, should be supplemented by clover 
hay, if i^ossible, not only because some dry food is required, but 
because this hay is rich in protein. 

399. Space occupied by silage and dry fodder. — A cubic foot of 
hay in the mow weighs about five pounds. According to King ^ 
a cubic foot of corn silage in a thirty-foot silo weighs 30.6 pounds. 
Estimating that hay contains 13.2 per cent, and silage 79.1 per 
cent, of water, we have the following: 

One cubic foot of hay in the mow contains 4.34 lbs. dry matter. 

One cubic foot of silage in a thirty-foot silo contains 8.28 lbs. dry matter. 

"We learn that a given volume of silage contains nearly twice as 
much dry matter as the same volume of hay stored in the mow. 
1 Bui. 59, Wis. Sta. 



The Emilage of Fodders. 255 

400. Cost of putting green corn fodder in the silo. — The cost for 
labor involved in placing a corn crop in tlie silo is reported by- 
several Stations to be as follows: 

New Hampshire (Bui. 1) $1.08 per ton. 

Massachusetts (Kept. 1884) 1.50 per ton. 

Kansas (Bui. 48) 71 per ton. i^" 

Maryland (Kept. 1889) 1.43 per ton. \ 

King, of the Wisconsin Station, ^ studied the operation of silo 
filling on four Wisconsin dairy farms, and found the average 
amount of green fodder placed in the silo per man, daily, to be as 
follows: 

Farm No. 1 2.96 tons per 10 hours labor. 

Farm No, 2 2.60 tons per 10 hours labor. 

Farm No. 3 2.45 tons per 10 hours labor. 

Farm No. 4 2.43 tons per 10 hours labor. 

Station Farm, 1893 2.37 tons per 10 hours labor. 

Average 2.56 tons per 10 hours labor. 

This shows that for each man working ten hours, about two 
and one-half tons of green corn fodder were placed in the silo. 
Estimating labor at fifteen cents per hour we have 58.6 cents as 
the cost of putting one ton of green corn in the silo. (655) 

401. Crops for the silo. — Indian corn is pre-eminently suited 
for silage, the solid, succulent stems, when cut into short lengths 
or shredded, packing closely, thereby excluding the air and form- 
ing a solid mass which keeps well. By planting the kernels 
rather thickly in the row the corn j)lants will develop the proper 
proportion of ear to stalk to form a silage sufficiently rich in 
nutrients while still furnishing a larger quantity of roughage. 
Investigation and experience teach that the corn crop should 
be well matured before it is harvested for the silo. Silage from 
immature corn is sour and of low feeding value. Many of the 
adverse reports on silage are due to the use of immature, watery 
corn plants. See Chax^ter X. 

Eed clover stands next to corn for silage purposes. There is 
still much to be learned concerning the proper method of convert- 
ing clover into silage, if we may judge from the wide range in the 

1 Rept. 1893. 



25G Feeds and Feeding. 

quality of silage commonly produced from clover. While some 
lots of clover silage are all that can be desired, in most instances 
this silage possesses a rank, disagreeable odor and is unsatisfactory, 
not being relished by stock. Judging from limited experience, 
it would appear that the best quality of clover silage is secured 
by cutting the clover at the usual time for hay making, and al- 
lowing the plants to lose a part of their moisture by wilting be- 
fore they are placed in the silo. Green, sappy clover contains 
too much moisture for the best silage. The hollow stems of the 
rye plant and their fibrous character, even when quite green, seem 
to prevent its conversion into first-class silage, though it is used 
to some extent for this purpose. Attempts have been made to 
use such crops as cabbage, rape and the various roots, mangels, 
ruta-bagas, etc. , for silage, but without success. 

402. The Robertson mixture. — Eobertson, of the Dominion Sta- 
tion, 1 Ottawa, in the effort to secure a silage containing the nu- 
trients of a balanced ration, concluded that the following mixture 
would prove satisfactory: Ten tons of green fodder corn, three 
tons of English horse beans, and one and a half tons of sunflower 
heads. To secure the proper proportion of these crops under Cana- 
dian conditions, for each acre of corn there should be planted 
half an acre of horse beans and one-fourth of an acre of sunflowers. 
This mixture was found satisfactory in feeding trials with dairy 
cows and fattening steel's. Since the horse bean does not thrive 
in the United States except possibly in the extreme north, some 
other plant must be substituted in mixtures of this character. 
Mr. G. F. Weston, Superintendent of the Biltmore estate, North 
Carolina, reports to the writer that he has found that one load of 
cowi)ea vines mixed with two loads of green corn forage produces 
an excellent silage for dairy cows. 

403. Silage for farm stock. — Silage is pre-eminently a food 
for the cow, and its use will largely remain with the dairy 
farmer. Because of its succulence and palatability, this forage is 
recommended as a substitute for roots with fattening cattle. Sil- 
age proves an excellent food for sheep, being especially useful 
with ewes having lambs at foot. From its composition silage is 



1 Kept. 1893-95. 



The Ensilage of Fodders. 257 

plainly not adapted to pig feeding. Some silage may be fed to 
idle horses, but for work horses the amount must necessarily be 
limited because of its bulky, soft character. 

404. On the rational use of silage. — The silo and its product 
must now be regarded as a fixed factor in American agriculture. 
Those farms which carry a relatively small amount of stock do not 
require the silo. On such farms corn is rarely planted for forage, 
and the straw stacks in the barn yards, slowly rotting to manure, 
show that grain is grown for the market rather than for home 
feeding. 

On the other hand many farms are heavily stocked with cattle, 
and everything raised finds waiting mouths with demands for still 
more. In such cases the feeder will find his best ally in the 
Indian corn plant. On heavily- manured lands enormous crops of 
corn forage carrying much grain may be grown, and this utilized 
as dry fodder serves admirably, while the silo will materially ex- 
tend its availability. Corn forage carrying many small ears, 
placed in the pit at one operation, rests in the most compact 
form, safely awaiting the time for use. Dried fodder corn stored 
in the stack or mow deteriorates rapidly with the coming of 
spring, the stalks becoming brittle and losing in palatability. 
Silage keeps with less loss than does fodder during this time, and 
what is not needed for spring feeding will help out the short 
summer pastures. Where intensive farming is practiced the silo 
will prove an important factor. 

405. Effect of silage upon quality of milk. — Milk -condensing 
factories have quite generally refused to accept milk from dairies 
where silage is fed. Whether there is a just foundation for this 
prejudice remains unsettled at the present time. Not all con- 
densing factories, however, are adverse to the use of silage by their 
patrons. The Michigan Condensed Milk Company, with factories 
at Lansing and Howell, Michigan, accepts milk from silage-fed 
cows. In the winter and spring of 1897, about one-fourth of the 
milk received at the Lansing factory was from this source and 
the company was urging its patrons to erect and use silos, at the 
same time insisting that well-matured corn only be used. ^ 

^ From iuformutiou furnished by G. H. True of the Mich. Agl. College.. 
17 



258 Feeds and Feeding. 

Experts, as a rule, can detect a silage odor or flavor in milk from 
silage-fed cows. The fact does not seem of much importance, 
however, when we know that milk furnished by many of the best 
dairymen, who are heavy feeders of silage, is readily disposed of 
to critical customers in cities, who pay high prices for what they 
regard an excellent article. Butter from dairies where silage is 
properly fed meets with no objection from consumers. 

In view of the fact that many thousands of silos are now in use 
by the best dairymen of America, there seems no longer any 
foundation for objections to the legitimate use of silage as a food 
for the dairy cow. 

II. Building and Filling the Silo. 

406. Silo construction. — "Without question the round wooden 
silo devised by King^ is the one which will be most commonly con- 
structed. The following brief description is adapted from King's 
directions: A circular foundation of stone or brick is constructed 
extending about three feet above ground level to secure immunity 
of the timbers from moisture. The top of the stone wall is neces- 
sarily thicker than the superstructure, and has a shoulder bev- 
eled outward, or inward, either form being satisfactory. Cir- 
cular silos may be of any size from sixteen feet in diameter up- 
ward. For the superstructure, set 2 x 4 inch studding of not less 
than twenty-four feet in length on the foundation, standing them 
twelve inches apart. To the outside of the studding nail half- 
inch sheathing; then cover with building i)aper, and finally 
with half-inch siding. In warm districts the building paper may 
be omitted. Each board nailed horizontally on a round silo is 
part of a hoop, and all combine to give a structure of great 
stability. The inside of the silo can be finished in several ways. 
If lumber is employed, use three thicknesses of half-inch boards 
not over six inches wide, with two layers of building paper be- 
tween, thus making an air-tight inner wall. Ventilation, which 
is of the highest importance to the preservation of this shell, is 
provided by openings at bottom and top through the outside 
siding, the air passing upward in the four-inch space made by 
the studding. Instead of wood for lining brick may be used, 

1 Bui. 59, Wis. Expt. Sta. 



The Ensilage of Fodders. 



259 



in wliicli case only one tliickness of inside boards is provided, 
against which the bricks rest. If large, the silo may be lined 
with combined sheeting and lathing, and then plastered. Small- 
diameter silos should be first boarded inside and then lathed and 
plastered. Doors, which must be air-tight when closed, should 
be provided every six feet, and a dormer window in the roof 
admits the end of the silage carrier. 

The advantages of a round silo are: The largest cubic capacity 
for a given amount of building material, no springing of walls 
through internal pressure, no corners for poor silage, and finally, 
great strength for a minimum amount of building material. The 
round silo may be connected by a passage-way with the feeding 
stable. 

407. The rectangular silo. — Silos placed in the barn are usually 
of rectangular form, the girts extending horizontally with an 
inside lining of boards running vertically. Corners are avoided 
by boarding across them. When covered on the outside, venti- 
lation may be provided by tacking cleats with holes in them to 
the girts and nailing the outside boarding to them. 

408. Weight of silage at different depths. — King ^ calculates 
the weight of silage two days after filling the silo to be as follows: 



Weight of 


silage in silos of different depths — King. 


Depth of silage. 


Weight at different 
depths. 


Mean weight of silage for 
whole depth of silo. 


Feet: 
1 


Lbs. per cu. ft. 

18.7 
33.1 
46.2 
56.4 
61.0 


Lbs. per cu. ft. 
18.7 


10 


26.1 


20 


33.3 


30 


39.6 


36 


42.8 







The above shows that ten feet down in the silo the silage 
weighs about thirty-three pounds per cubic foot, while at thirty- 
six feet in depth it weighs sixty-one pounds per cubic foot. The 
mean weight for silage at different depths is shown in the last 
column. 



1 Bui. 59, Wis. Expt. Sta. 



260 



Feeds and Feeding. 



409. Capacity of silos. — The following table by the same author 
gives the capacity of round silos at different depths and varying 
inside diameters: 



Approximate capacity of cylindrical silos for well-matured corn silage, 

in tons — King. 



Depth, 

feet. 



20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 



Inside Diameter in Feet. 



15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 



Tons. 



58. 

62. 

67. 

71. 

76, 

80. 

85. 

90. 

95. 

99 
105 
109 
115 



Tons. 



67 

71 

76 

81 

86 

89 

97 

102 

108 

113 

119 

124 

135 



Tons. 



75, 

80, 

86. 

92. 

97. 

103 

109 

115 

122 

128 

134 

141 

147 



Tons, 



84. 

90. 

96. 
103. 
109. 
116. 
123. 
129. 
136. 
143. 
151. 
158, 
165, 



Tons. 



94. 
100. 
107. 
115. 
122 
129^ 
137. 
144. 
152. 
160. 
168. 
176. 
184, 



Tons. 



104. 
111. 
119. 
127. 
135. 
143. 
151. 
100. 
168. 
177. 
186. 
195. 
204. 



Tons. 



115. 
123. 
131. 
140. 
149. 
158. 
167. 
176. 
186. 
195. 
205. 
215. 
225, 



Tons. 



126. 

135. 

144. 

154. 

163. 

173. 

183. 

194. 

204. 

214. 

225 

236! 

247. 



Tons. 



138. 
147. 
158. 
168. 
179. 
189. 
200. 
212. 
223. 
234. 
246. 
258. 
270, 



Tons. 



150. 

161. 

172. 

183. 

194. 

206. 

218. 

230. 

243. 

2.55. 

268. 
2 281, 
5 294, 



Tons, 



163. 
174 
186 
199 
211 
223 
237 
2.50 
263 
277 
291 
305 
319 



Tons. 



176.8 
189.0 
202.1 
215.5 
228.7 
242.2 
256.7 
270.9 
285.4 
300.2 
-315.3 
.330.0 
61345.7 



In the above table the horizontal lines give the number of tons 
held by silos of the diameter marked at the top of the columns 
and depth marked at the side. 

410. The proper horizontal feeding area. — Silage cannot be cut 
down in sections like hay in the mow or stack, as the air passing 
inward and upward would rapidly deteriorate the whole mass. 
The proper method is to remove a certain portion of the silage 
from the top of the pit each day, and experience has shown 
that the rate of removal should be not less than 1.2 inches per 
day. Every two inches in depth of corn silage weighs about five 
pounds per square foot near the top of the silo and ten pounds 
near the bottom, averaging about seven and a half pounds. On 
this basis the proper surface area may be placed at five square 
feet per cow, daily. As a guide for the proper surface area of 
the silo. King gives the following table, showing the inside diam- 
eter of silos which will allow the silage to be fed down at the 
rate of two or three inches a day when each cow is allowed forty 



The Ensilage of Fodders. 



261 



pounds of silage daily, — silos to be of sufficient capacity to liold 
silage for 180 days: 

Necessary diameter of silos for feeding different numbers of cows 
while removing from 2 to 3.2 inches of silage daily — King. 





Silo 30 ft. deep, no partition. 
Mean depth fed daily, 2 inches. 


Silo 24 ft. deei 


3 with partition. 


No. of 


Mean depth fed daily, 3.2 inches. 














cows. 


Contents. 


Round, 


Square, 


Contents. 


Round, 


Square, 






diame- 


sides 




diame- 


sides, 




Tons. 


Cu. ft. 


ter in ft. 


in ft. 


Tons. 


Cu. ft. 


ter in ft. 


in ft. 


80 


108 


4,091 


15 


12x14 


108 


5,510 


17 


16x16 


40 


144 


6,54,5 


16.75 


14x16 


144 


7,347 


20 


18x18 


50 


180 


8,182 


18.75 


16x18 


180 


9,184 


22 


20x20 


60 


216 


9,818 


20.5 


18x18 


216 


11,020 


24 


22x22 


70 


2.52 


11,454 


22 


20x20 


252 


12,857 


26 


22x26 


80 


288 


13,091 


22.5 


20x22 


288 


14,691 


28 


24x28 


90 


824 


14,727 


25 


22x24 


324 


16,531 


29.75 


26x28 


100 


360 


16,364 


26.5 


24x24 


360 


18,367 


31.25 


28x28 



411. Rate of filling. — From seven to fifteen days should be al- 
lowed for filling the silo, as this not only permits more feed to be 
stored, but also insures better and sweeter silage with smaller 
loss of dry matter than when the operation is crowded into a 
period of two or three days. Time is required for the silage to 
settle and to expel the entangled air by heat and by setting free 
carbonic acid gas. 

On the subject of filling King writes:^ " Corn and clover may 
be put into the silo either whole or cut, as seems best under the 
circumstances. In either case good silage can be made if proper 
care is taken, but more care and usually more time will be re- 
quired to fill a silo with either whole corn or clover than to run 
it through the cutter first; and it is certain that more time will be 
required to take the silage out of the silo if put in whole. . . . 
To insure the best silage and the least loss of dry matter it is im- 
portant that the silage should have a depth at the close of filling 
of not less than 24 feet, and 30 feet is better than 24 feet." 

412. Filling and covering. — During filling the inpouring material 
should be well spread and tramped near the walls, and should 
also be well tramped every two or three days thereafter for a 



* Log. cit. 



262 Feeds and Feeding. 

period of ten days. The contents having become settled, the 
snrface of the pit may be covered with fresh marsh grass, weeds, 
chaff, cut straw or other cheap or waste substance, or a portion 
of the surface silage may be allowed to decay and form the cover- 
ing. The application of fifteen or twenty pounds of water to each 
square foot of surface will cause the material at the top of the pit 
to ferment rapidly and soon compact itself into an impervious 
layer. Feeding from the silo may commence at once or may be 
delayed indefinitely. If only a part of the silage is used during 
winter the remainder may be covered again and held until sum- 
mer, when it may serve a useful purpose during a period of drought 
or short pastures. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



MANTIRIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

413. Essential constituents of fertilizers. — Only three of the 
constituents which plants remove from the soil need be considered 
in this chapter, viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, for 
all the others are usually held in such abundance that no thought 
need be given them. While it is possible for the legumes to 
gather nitrogen indirectly from the air, the supply from this source 
is not always sufficient, and it is often necessary to add nitrogen 
compounds to the soil for the purpose of enriching it. Phosphoric 
acid and potash are the two mineral compounds which are not 
always held by the soil in sufficient quantity to give profitable 
crops and must be supplied in the form of manures or fertilizers. 

Farm-yard manures may benefit the soil because the vegetable 
matter they contain acts as a mulch and forms humus, but so far 
as feeding the plants is concerned their worth rests upon the nitro- 
gen, phosphoric acid and potash they contain. 

414. Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs. — The quantity of 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash found in the various feed- 
ing stuffs is given in Table III of the Appendix. The examples 
presented below are abstracted from that table for the purpose of 
illustration: 

Tdble sliowing fertilizing constituents in 1,000 pounds of common 
feeding stuffs — From Table III of the Appendix. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Wheat straw .. 
Timothy hay.. 

Clover hay 

Com 

Wheat 

Wheat bran... 
OD meal, O. P 



Nitrogen. 



Lbs. 

5.9 
12.6 
20.7 
18.2 
23.6 
26.7 
54.3 



Phosphoric 
acid. 



Lbs. 



1 

5 
8 

7 

7 
28.9 
16.6 



Potash. 



Lbs. 

5.1 

9.0 

22.0 

4.0 

5.0 

16.1 

13.7 



264 



Feeds and Feeding. 



From this table we learn that wheat straw contains 5.9 pounds 
of nitrogen, and timothy hay more than twice as much, or 12.6 
pounds. Clover hay is richer than timothy hay in nitrogen, and 
especially in potash, though poorer in phosphoric acid. "We 
observe a larger quantity of all the fertilizing constituents, espe- 
cially phosphoric acid and potash, in wheat bran than in the wheat 
grain, from which bran is derived. This is because the starchy 
part of the wheat grain used for flour holds little fertility, while 
the outside portion of the grain which goes into the bran contains 
most of the nitrogen and ash. 

415. Amount of excrement voided by farm animals. — Information 
on this subject from American experiments is quite limited, but 
the following will prove useful: 

Yoidings per day of twenty-four hours by farm animals as deter- 
mined at several Stations. 



Animal. 


Station. 


Solid 
excre- 
ment. 


Urine. 


TotaL 


Horse 


Cornell, Bui. 3 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
54.5 


Horse 


Cornell, Bui. 13 






58.2 














Average. 






56.3 












Cornell, Bui. 27 


64 
50 
42 
41 


18 
21 
15 

23 




Cow 


Geneva, Ilept. 1890 




Cow 


Geneva, llept. 1890 






Minnesota, Bui. 26 












Average. 


49 


19 


68 


Slieep 

Pie 


Massachusetts, Rept. 1893 

Minnesota, Bui. 26 


1.8 
4.3 


2.0 
2.9 


3.8 

7.2 









The table shows that the voidings of the horse amount to over 
55 pounds, the cow 68, the sheep nearly 4, and the pig over 7 
pounds each 24 hours. 

416. Manure from the ox. — At the Ontario Agricultural Col- 
lege, 1 an ox was confined from birth to maturity in a large Ijox- 
stall having a cement floor. The stall was well bedded, and the 
animal given exercise by leading, when required. Account was 



Kept. 1893. 



Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs. 265 

kept of all water and food supplied, and of the voidings, with the 
following results: 

Manure obtained from steer confined in hox-staU tJiirty-six months — 

Ontario Agricultural College. 

Pounds. Pounds, 

Weight of steer at end of thirty-six months 1,588 

Water drank 42,449 

Feed consumed: Pounds. 

Milk 3,862 

Roots 7,270 

Grain 5,857 

Coarse forage 20,957 

Total 37,946 

Total weight of feed and water 80,395 

Total weight of excrement 46,560 

Total manure, including bedding 59,280 

Excrement per pound gain, live weight 30 

Manure, including bedding, per pound gain, live weight 37 

417. Heiden's method for calculating manure produced. — Heiden^ 
computed the amount of manure produced by farm animals in the 
following manner. He found that 47.3 per cent, of the dry mat- 
ter supplied in the food of the horse re-appears in the solid and 
liquid voidings, which contain 77.5 per cent, water and 22.5 per 
cent dry matter. From these data the following proportion is 

derived: 

22.5 : 100 :: 47.3 : (210) 

By this we understand that for each 100 pounds of dry matter 
fed the horse there are 210 pounds of voidings. This method of 
calculation gives the following results for each 100 pounds of dry 

matter fed: 

The horse voids 210 pounds of fresh manure. 
The cow voids 380 pounds of fresh manure. 
The sheep voids 180 pounds of frcsli manure. 

4IS. Nitrogen and ash retained and voided by farm animals. — In 

supplying feeding stuffs to farm animals some of the nitrogen and 
ash they contain are taken up for nourishment and retained in 
the body, or, after use, expelled in the urine. A considerable 
portion of the substances under discussion is not dissolved from 



* Storer's Agriculture, Vol. 1, p. 515. 



266 



Feeds and Feeding. 



the feeds during tlieir passage through the alimentary tract, but 
passes off with other useless matter in the solid voidings. 

The nitrogen and ash of feeding stuffs retained and voided by 
the animal are given in the table below, which summarizes the 
Rothamsted experiments as reported by Waringtonr^ 

Per cent, of nitrogen and ash voided a^ excrement or secured as ani- 
mal produce with various farm animals — RotJiamsted Station. 





Nitrogen. 


Ash. 




Ob- 
tained 
as car- 
cass or 
milk. 


Voided 
as solid 
excre- 
ment. 


Voided 
as-liq- 
uid ex- 
cre- 
ment. 


In total 
excre- 
ment. 


Obtained 

as live 

weight 

or milk. 


Voided 
in excre- 
ment and 
perspired. 


Fattening ox 

Fattening slieep. 
Fattening pig.... 
Milch cow 


3.9 

4.3 

14.7 

24.5 


22.6 
16.7 
22.0 
18.1 


73.5 
79.0 
63.3 
57.4 


96.1 
95.7 
85.3 
75.5 


2.3 

3.8 

4.0 

10.3 


97.7 
96.2 
96.0 
89.7 



The above data may be considered as representative of average 
results. From them we learn that the fattening ox retains only 
3.9 per cent, of the nitrogen sui^plied in its food, voiding 22.6 per 
cent, in the solid excrement and 73.5 per cent, in the urine; in 
all, 96.1 per cent, of the nitrogen supplied this animal in his 
food re-appears in the excrement and less than 4 per cent, is 
stored in the body. This large return of nitrogen seems reason- 
able when we remember that during the fattening process the 
grown ox adds little to his body besides fat, which we know con- 
tains no nitrogen. 

With the cow, 24.5 per cent, of the nitrogen in the feed is used 
mainly for the production of the casein and albumen of the milk, 
and 75.5 per cent, appears in the excrement. 

Of the ash from 2.3 to 10.3 per cent, is retained by the ani- 
mal or goes into the milk. Thus it is shown that from 75 to 95 
per cent, of all the fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs re- 
appears in the solid and liquid excrement. 

419. Composition of excrement. — It is imr»ortant that the farmer 
understand the composition of the excrement of farm animals 



1 Chemistry of the Farm, pp. 124-25. 



Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs. 



267 



in order to intelligently utilize manures. The source of the 
fertility in manures is well illustrated by the following table from 
Hebert, i which shows the location of the nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid and potash in the excrement of the horse and cow: 

Location of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in excrement — 

Hebert. 



Horse, urine 

Horse, solid excrement 

Cow, urine 

Cow, solid excrement.... 



Nitrogen. 



Per cent. 

1.52 
0.55 
1.05 
0.43 



Phosphoric 
acid. 



Per cent. 

Trace. 

0.35 
Ti-ace. 

0.12 



Potash. 



Per cent. 

0.92 
0.10 
1.36 
0.04 



We learn that the urine of the horse contains 1.52 per cent, of 
nitrogen and the solid excrement .55 per cent., or one-third as 
much. The reverse holds true for the phosphoric acid, for only 
a trace of this appears in the urine and nearly all in the solid 
excrement. Of the potash, .9 per cent, is found in the urine and 
only .1 per cent, in the solid excrement. 

The fertilizing constituents which pass off with the solid excre- 
ment are largely insoluble and to this extent not directly avail- 
able to plants when applied in manures. On the other hand, the 
constituents which appear in the urine are in soluble form and 
directly available to the plant. 

420. Commercial fertilizers. — The soil in parts of our country is 
now so depleted that farmers and planters are forced to make 
large use of commercial fertilizers in order to secure remunerative 
crops. The commercial fertilizers sold in the United States during 
the year 1896 amounted to 1,355,000 tons. ^ Placing a value on 
these of $20 per ton, a reasonable estimate, we have a total of 
over $27,000,000 paid out by farmers and gardeners living mainly 
in the Atlantic and Gulf states for commercial fertilizers in a 
single year. For the year 1895 the farmers of Connecticut ^ ex- 
pended over $700,000, and those in New Jersey * $1,575,000, for 
commercial fertilizers. 



* Expt. Sta. Record, Vol. 5; also Fertility of the Land, Roberts, p. 180. 

''American Fertilizer, Dec, 1896. 

=• Rept. Conn. Expt. Sta., 1895. ■• Rept. N. J. Expt. Sta., 1896. 



268 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The market value of commercial fertilizers is based on their 
content of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. Because of the 
enormous quantity of fertilizers used, each of their three valuable 
constituents has a definite market value. The average price 
of these ingredients in the wholesale markets is as follows: Nitro- 
gen, 15; phosphoric acid, 7, and potash 4.5 cents per pound. 
The prices of these articles do not fluctuate any more than do 
those of other standard articles of commerce. 

421. Valuation of fertilizer constituents in feeding stuffs. — If we 
follow the plan adopted by some Eastern Stations of placing the 
same values on nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in feeding- 
stuffs that these constituents bring when sold in commercial fer- 
tilizers, we are in a position to compare the fertilizing values of 
the several feeding stufis. Wheat bran and corn are compared 
in the table below: 

Value of the fertilizing constituents in 1,000 pounds of wheat bran 

and com. 





Wheat bran. 


Corn. 


Constituents. 


Pounds. 


Price 
per lb. 


Total. 


Pounds. 


Price 
per lb. 


Total. 


Nitrogen 


26.7 
28.9 
16.1 


Cents, 

15 

7 
4.5 


Dollars. 

4.00 
2.02 

.72 


18 
7 
4 


Cents. 

15 

7 
4.5 


Dollars. 
2.70 


Phosphoric acid 

Potash 


.49 
.18 






Total 






6.74 






3.37 















From the above we learn that the value of the fertilizing 
constituents in 1,000 pounds of bran is $6.74, and in the same 
weight of corn one-half as much, or $3.37. By doubling these 
figures we have the following: 

Value of fertilizing constituents in one ton of wheat bran $13.48 

Value of fertilizing constituents in one ton of corn 6.74 

422. What the figures mean. — The farmer will ask if it is 
here taught that he can get returns of $13.48 by the application 
of one ton of bran to his land as a fertilizer. Such a deduction 
is not the purpose of these figures. They mean, however, that 



Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs. 269 

a ton of bran contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in 
such amount that if bought in the form of commercial fertilizers 
they would cost at least the sum named. They mean that the 
farmer who harvests a ton of corn and seeks to return to the field 
the same amount of fertility that was abstracted by this crop 
must pay not less than $6.74 for the requisite fertilizers, if bough.t 
in the market. Virgin soils as a rule contain a large amount of 
available fertility, and pioneer farmers, drawing upon Nature's 
store, give little consideration to the subject. The Western 
farmer cultivating prairie lands, when marketing corn considers 
that in so doing he is selling labor and perhaps rent of the land; 
but rarely does he realize that he is also selling fertility, to re- 
place which would cost as much and often more than the crop 
brings. The Eastern farmer and Southern planter are now culti- 
vating soils which have been so depleted of available plant food 
that the subject of fertilizers is a matter of the deepest concern 
to them. 

When one who cultivates the soil must choose between com- 
mercial fertilizers and barn-yard manures, it is reasonable to 
estimate that the latter have a value of at least two-thirds the 
former, based on their nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash con- 
tents. Because the soils of the West are still rich in original 
fertility, the farmers of that region have as yet little need of 
commercial fertilizers, and barn- yard manures in consequence 
have a lower value than in the older-settled regions. For con- 
venience of comparison, it is perhaps best to use the same valua- 
tions for nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in farm manures 
that these same compounds command when sold in the form of 
commercial fertilizers. Such values should always be used, ho-w- 
ever, under the limitations above presented. With sharp com- 
petition confronting every one who cultivates the soil, the 
careful saving of farm manures and their judicious application 
are vital factors in farming operations, and as essential to con- 
tinued success as plowing the land or planting the crop. 

423. Manure produced by farm animals. — Eoberts ^ gathers the 
following interesting data showing the daily and yearly produc- 

1 The Fertility of the Land. 



270 



Feeds and Feeding. 



tion of manure by farm animals maintained under average condi- 
tions: 

Fertilizing constituents in solids and liquids voided hy farm animalSj 
daily and yearly — Various sources, Roberts. 



Horse (Hebert) 

Cow 

Sheep (Miintz and Girard) 
Pig (Boussingault) 





DaUy. 






Yearly 


• 


Nitro- 


Phos. 


Pot- 


Nitro 


Phos. 


Pot- 


gen. 


acid. 


ash. 


gen. 


acid. 


ash. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


.342 


.131 


.112 


125.2 


47.8 


43.2 


.467 


.071 


.294 


170.6 


26.0 


107.6 


.023 


.014 


.039 


8.4 


5.6 


14.3 


.0326 


.0246 


.50* 


11.9 


10.6 


11.9 



Value 

per 

year. 



124.06 

32.2.5 

2.29 

3.06 



* Estimated. 
424. Value of farm manure per ton. — Eoberts, gathering the 
data at Cornell Station and elsewhere, deduces the following as 
the average value per ton of manures from various farm animals, 
nitrogen being rated at fifteen cents, phosphoric acid at seven 
cents and potash at four and one-half cents per pound: 

Value per 
ton. 

Horse 

Cow 

Sheep 

Pig 

It should be borne in mind that the value of farm manures de- 
pends primarily upon the character of the feed given, and, in the 
second place, upon the animal to which the feed is supplied. 
Manure which originates from the use of concentrated feeding 
stuffs usually has a high value, because such feeds are rich in 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. Manure resulting from 
the use of straw and coarse forage has a correspondingly low 
value. 1 



$2.49 
2.43 
4.25 
3.20 



1 The student desiring additional information on matters treated in this 
chapter should consult: The Fertility of the Land, Roberts; Agriculture 
in Some of its Relations with Chemistry, Storer. 



Part III. 
FEEDING FARM ANIMALS. 



CHAPTEE XVn. 

INVESTIGATIONS CONCEENING THE HOESE. 

I. Mare and Foal. 

425. Period of gestation. — According to Yoiiatt, ^ the average 
period of gestation for the mare is eleven months, but it may be 
diminished five weeks or extended six weeks. Of 582 mares re- 
ported by M. Tessier, the shortest period was 287 days, the longest 
419, and the average 330 days. ^ 

426. Weight and growth of foals. — Boussingault ^ found that: 
''1. Foals, the issue of mares weighing from 960 to 1,100 

pounds, weigh at birth about 112 pounds. 

"2. During suckling, for three months the weight increases in 
the relation of 278 : 100, and the increase corresponds very nearly 
to 2.2 pounds per head per day. 

"3. The increase in weight per day of foals from the end of 
the first to the end of the second year is about 1.3 pounds, and 
towards the third year the increase per day falls to something 
under one pound. 

"4. After three full years, the period at which the horse has 
very nearly attained his growth and development, any increase 
becomes less and less perceptible. ' ' 



1 The Horse, p. 222 



The Horse, p. 222. 

Farmers' Cyclopedia, Johnson, p. 562. 

Rural Economy, Am. ed., p. 464. 



272 



Feeds and Feeding. 



427. Weight of trotting foals at birth. — At Allen farm, Pitts- 
field, Mass., Mestoni recorded the weights of foals at birth as 
summarized in the following table: 

Weight of trotting -hred foals at birth and other data relating thereto — 
Meston, Allen Farm. 



Averages. 



Weight of foals at birth, pounds 

Weight of their daius after foaling, 

pounds 

Weight of their sires, pounds 

Period of gestation, days 

Foetal growth per day, pounds 



21 colts. 



15 of 
av. or 
less wt. 



98.5 



1,070 

1,0G5 

343 



.29 



6 above 
av. wt. 



129 

1,156 

1,095 

337 



.38 



23 fillies. 



13 of 
av. or 

less wt. 



102 

1,163 

1,066 

338 



.30 



10 
above 
av. wt. 



123 

1,155 

1,071 

340 



.3& 



428. Increase in weight of foaSs. — Meston ^ recorded the in- 
crease in weight of trotting-bred foals up to four months, with the 
results shown in the following table: 

Growth of suckling trotting -hred foals up to four months — Meston, 

Allen Farm. 







Av 


Av. growth per 
day of foals of — 


No. 
of 


Extremes in 
growth — lbs. 


Age of foals. 


No. 
of 


growth 
per 
day. 






foals 
above 


per d " 


ay. 












foals. 


Av. 

wt. or 
under. 


Above 
av. wt. 


av. 
wt. 


Max. 

foal. 


Min. 
foal. 






Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


From 3 to 9 days. 


15 


3.70 


3.76 


3.62 


7 


6.00* 


1.60 


From 11 to 19 days. 


14 


3.34 


3.17 


3.53 


6 


4.71 


2.00 


From 22 to 28 days. 


12 


2.80 


2.78 


2 s: 


3' 


3.01 


2.00 


From 31 to .39 days. 


16 


2.67 


2.64 


2.79 


5 


3.08 


1.82 


From 40 to 49 days. 


15 


2.67 


2.55 


2.KI 


7 


3.23 


1.88 


From 52 to 59 days. 


10 


2.46 


2.38 


2.56 


3 


2.94 


1.72 


From 60 to 69 days. 


11 


2.33 


o 09 


2.81 


2 


2.94 


1.84 


From 70 to 79 days. 


13 


2.35 


2.30 


2.39 


7 


3.00 


1.55 


From 80 to 88 days. 


8 


2.14 


2.13 


2.16 


2 


2.68 


1.51 


Over 3 and under 4 
















months 


14 


2.10 


2.00 


2.28 


5 


2.53 


1.75 







Doubtful. 



» Country Gentleman, 1894, pp. 636-7, 
2 Loc. cit. 



Investigations Concerning the Horse. 



273 



429. Mare's milk. — The following table presents the composi- 
tion of mare's milk, with cow's milk for comparison, according 
to Konig: i 

Percentage composition of mare's milJc; cowPs milk being given for 
comparison — Konig. 



Average 47 analyses mare's milk. 
Average 793 analyses cow's milk. 



Water. 



90.78 
87.17 



Casein 
and albu- 
men. 



1.99 
3.55 



Fat. 



1.21 
3.69 



Sugar. 



5.67 
4.88 



Ash. 



0.35 
.71 



It is shown that mare's milk contains more water than that of 
the cow, the casein, albnmen, fat and ash being about one-half 
that found in cow's milk, while the sugar is nearly one per cent, 
higher. If cow's milk is used for feeding foals, it should be 
diluted with water and sugar added. 

The quantity of milk yielded by mares has been determined in 
only a few cases. According to Goltz, 2 Tartarian mares produce 
from 450 to 500 pounds of milk per year in addition to that 
required by their foals. Such mares remain in milk two years. 

Vieth 3 reports that good milking mares on the steppes of south- 
eastern Russia yield from 4 to 5 liters (quarts) of milk daily when 
milked five times a day, as is the practice. 

II. Wolffs s Studies of Feed Consumed and Work Performed hy the 

Horse. 

430. Plan of investigation. — "Wolff's feeding and digestion e:::- 
periments with the horse are the first extensive and systematic 
efforts in this line. From the necessities of the case his work 
was done with single animals. He first studied the comparative 
digestibility of various feeding stuffs with the horse, and later 
the rehition of feed consumed to the amount of work performed. 
To discuss the results of these investigations intelligently it is 
neccs.sary to first consider the method adopted for measuring the 
woik done by the horse. 

1 C'heni. (1. Mensch. Nahr. u. Genus-mittel. 

2 LaiKlw. Ill, p. 5J0. 

» Ldw. Vers. ttta. 31 (1885), p. 354. 
18 



274 Feeds and Feeding. 

431. Measuring the work of horses. — In measuring work done, 
the engineer uses as the unit a foot-pound (or foot-ton), the term 
meaning the work accomplished in lifting one pound (or one ton) 
one foot high. In comparing the work performed by horses under 
varying conditions it will be necessary to use the same expres- 
sion. A nominal horse-power is 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 
This amount of work was ascertained by James "Watts, the in- 
ventor of the steam-engine, in a series of experiments with com- 
pound pulleys. As the capacity of animals for hard work is 
limited, no horse can work constantly more than eight hours a 
day. The work done by a horse during a day will be represented 
by 33, 000 X 8 X 60 = 15, 840, 000 foot-pounds. This is, however, an 
excessive amount of work. An average horse will do only about 
22,000 foot-pounds per minute. This work continued for eight 
hours gives 10,560,000 foot-pounds, which is regarded as an or- 
dinary day's work for a medium-sized horse. 

In the Hohenheim experiments ^ the following figures were 
obtained for eight hours, constituting a day's work: 

Foot-pounds. 

A. Hauling on level track 7,999,800 

B. Working in horse-sweep 12,996,000 

Perels^ gives the following data for a day's work of eight hours 
for strong, well-fed horses: 

A. Hauling on level track — Foot-pounds. 

Heavy work 17,051,000 

Ordinary work 12,996,000 

B. Working in horse-sweep 10,136,900 

432. Wolffs dynamometer. — To measure the work performed 
by the horse in a given time, Wolff constructed a horse dynamom- 
eter, which may be described as a sweep, the axis of which 
consisted of two parts — a lower stationary cast-iron base and an 
upper loose cast-iron cover. This cover was connected with the 
sweep, and could be weighted so that the friction between the re- 
volving cover and the stationary base on which it rested could be 
increased at will. The details of the dynamometer, and the ar- 

1 Wolff, Ldw. Jahrb. VIII, Suppl. I, p. 115. 

2 Deutsche Ldw. Presse, 1878, Sept. 18; Ldw. Jahrb. VIII. Suppl. I, 
p. 115. 



Investigations Concerning the Horse. 275 

rangements for controlling the work performed, are very com- 
plicated and need not be described here. ^ In the first series of 
experiments with the dynamometer conducted during the summer 
of 1877, 2 the daily work performed by the horse during the five 
periods of the experiment amounted to 3,429,500, 6,864,000, 
10, 288, 500, 6, 859, 000 and 3, 429, 500 foot-pounds. The ration fed 
daily throughout the experiment was 13.2 pounds of oats, 11 
pounds of hay, 3.3 pounds of cut winter- wheat straw, and .4 
ounces of salt. The weight of the horse was 1,177 pounds. 

433. What was shown by the digestion trials. — Digestion trials 
conducted during each period showed that the amount of 
work performed by the horse did not exert any influence on 
the digestibility of the ration fed. The digestion coefficients 
found during the five periods were: for dry matter, 57, 56, 56, 54, 
53 per cent. ; for protein, 71, 68, 70, 67, 68 per cent. ; for nitrogen- 
free extract, QS, 70, 68, 68, 64 per cent., etc. The somewhat lower 
digestibility of the ration during the last period is accounted for 
by the influence of the storing of the hay — the digestibility of 
hay decreasing with age. The animal was never overworked 
during the digestion experiments, the hardest labor being easily 
within its capacity. The heavier work done during the third 
period was accompanied by a greater quantity of water drank and 
a decrease in the live weight of the animal. The results obtained 
were corroborated in a second trial, when a highly nitrogenous 
ration containing field beans was fed (16.5 pounds of hay and 
8.8 pounds of beans), and also in still later experiments by the 
same investigator. ^ The results obtained by Grandeau and 
Leclerc with French ca'b horses (442) do not quite correspond with 
those found by Wolff with German farm horses, as given above, 
the former investigators finding a small depression in the digesti- 
bility of rations fed to horses doing slow work compared with 
that obtained when resting in the stall, and a somewhat larger 
depression when doing harder work. Tlie differences obtained 
were within three per cent, of those found by Wolff, and are not, 
therefore, of much practical importance. 

1 For a detailed description of the apparatus, with illustrations, see 
Ldw. Vers. Sta. 21, 1877, p. 21. 

2 Ldw. Jahrb. VIII, 1879, iSuppl. I, p. 73. 3 Ibid., p. 78. 



276 Feeds and Feeding. 

434. Nutrients required for maintenance and work. — "Wolff's ex- 
periments show that a horse of average size will do medium hard 
work and maintain his weight on a ration containing abont 12 
pounds of digestible matter. A nutritive ratio of 1:6.4 jiroved 
better than the narrow ration of 1:3, When, as in the later ex- 
periments, less than 9.5 pounds of digestible matter were supplied 
in the ration, the weight of the horse decreased, the decrease 
being, under otherwise similar conditions, more marked when a 
narrow nutritive ratio (1:3.4) was fed than when a wider ratio 
(1: 5.6) was given. (445) "When heavier work was done, a sup- 
ply of 12 pounds of digestible matter did not suffice to maintain 
the weight of the horse. This could only be attained by furnish- 
ing larger quantities of nutrients, viz., about 15.5 pounds. 

The digestible nutrients necessary to maintain a horse of 1,100 
pounds in a medium nutritive condition, when not performing 
any mechanical work, was found in repeated experiments with 
three horses to be 9.25 pounds on an average, when a consider- 
able portion, at least one-half^ of the ration was made up of 
coarse feed, viz., meadow hay. This proportion of coarse feed 
will hold good for farm horses doing an average day's work in 
rather slow time. Horses which are required to do heavy work 
and in rai)id time, as, for instance, mail-coach or army horses, 
must have rations which are easily digested, and they should 
consist of concentrated feeding stuffs with some chaffed straw and 
little or no hay. ^ 

435. Value of the various components of fodders. — According 
to Wolff's experiments, the digestible albuminoids of the feed 
have, beyond a certain minimum, no higher value for production 
of work than the same quantity of starch or of the starch equiva- 
lent of digestible non -nitrogenous substances. (Chapter V, pt. 1. ) 
He found that the digestible organic substances in coarse fodders, 
mainly meadow hay, have considerably lower value for the pro- 
duction of work in the case of the horse than have the same sub- 
stances in concentrated feeding stuffs, — for instance, oats. The 
explanation given, the correctness of which is disputed by good 
authorities, is that the crude fiber, largely present in the coarse 

» Wolff, Ldw. Jahrb., 18S7, Suppl. III. 



Investigations Concerning the Horse. 



277 



fodders, is of no value to the horse either for maintenance or for 
production of work, the decomposition of cellulose taking place in 
the colon through the action of ferments, after it has passed the 
digestive tract. For keeping a horse of 1,100 pounds weight at 
maintenance, 9.25 pounds of digestible matter are required in the 
ration, as has been seen. Of crude fiber-free nutrients, 7.28 to 
7.50 pounds were found necessary, an average of 7.39 pounds. 
This result is an average of thirty-eight experiments with three 
horses and agrees closely with the findings of Grandeau and 
Leclerc, who obtained 7.47 pounds as the average of six closely 
agreeing experiments with two horses. 

436. Work possible from one pound of 'feed. — Beyond the 7.39 
pounds of digestible crude fiber-free nutrients required for the 
maintenance of a 1,100 pound horse, each additional .22 of a pound 
(100 grams) of the crude fiber-free digestible nutrients will, ac- 
cording to Wolff, increase the power of the horse for muscular 
work about 400,000 foot-pounds. The table presented below 
shows the total available work possible from one pound of com- 
mon feeding stuff on this basis: 

Work, in foot-pounds, obtainable from one pound of various food 
substances when fed to the horse — Wolff. 



Feed. 



Meadow hay 
Clover hay... 
Alfalfa hay... 
Wheat straw 

Oats 

Barley 

Corn 

Field beans .. 

Peas 

Lupines 

Linseed cake 

Flaxseed 

Potatoes 

Carrots 



No. of 
anal- 
yses. 



16 
5 
4 
4 

8 



No. of 
diges- 
tion ex- 
peri- 
ments. 



23 
7 
6 
7 

22 
1 
1 
5 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 



Total 
digesti- 
ble or- 
ganic 
matter. 



Per ct. 

40.6 
41.1 
46.2 
15.7 
60.2 
70.7 
80.0 
72.4 
66.7 
63.4 
63.4 
74.0 
21.5 
6.0 



Digesti- 
ble 
crude 
fiber. 



Per ct. 

11.4 
12.0 
11.0 
7.6 
2.0 
4.1 
1.5 
4.5 
0.5 
8.7 



Equivalent to work. 



Crude 
fiber in- 
cluded. 



Foot- 
pounds. 

736,500 

745,600 

838,100 

284,800 

1,092,000 

1,282,000 

1,452,000 

1,313,000 

1,210,000 

1,150,000 

1,150,000 

1,343,000 

390,000 

108,800 



Crude 
fiber ex- 
cluded. 



Foot- 
pounds. 

529,800 

527,900 

638.600 

147.000 

1,055,000 

1,209,000 

1,424,000 

1,232,000 

1,201,000 

992,400 

1,150,000 

1,343,000 

390,000 

108,800 



278 



Feeds and Feeding. 



437. Feed requirements for work. — The manner of calculating 
the amount of feed necessary for the performance of a certain 
amount of work may be illustrated by an example cited by 
Wolif. 1 If a riding horse in average condition, weighing 937 
pounds, and 1,157 pounds with rider and saddle, travels 20.5 
miles daily, he performs the amount of work shown in the table, 
which calls for corresponding quantities of nutrients. 

Nutrients required for tcorJc of varying degrees — WoJjf. 



Movement. 



Walking. 
Slow trot 
Canter ... 



Move- 
ment 


Time 


per 

second. 


required. 


Feet. 


Seconds. 


4.1 

8.2 
20.5 


26,400 

13,200 

5,280 



Energy 

used per 

second. 



Foot- 
pounJs. 

301,998 
1,207,978 
7,356,502 



Total 
energy. 



Foot- 
pounds. 

7,971,700 
15,94-5,300 
38,842,900 



Digestible 
nulrients 
required. 



Lbs. 

2.85 
5.70 
13.9 



To the digestible nutrients given in the last column must be 
added the quantity necessary to maintain the animal, aside from 
the performance of any work, which will amount to 6. 70 pounds 
per 1,000 pounds weight (7.39 for 1,100 pounds), so that ordi- 
narily the supj)ly of digestible matter in the ration would be re- 
spectively 9.13, 11.97 and 20.17 pounds. The two amounts in the 
last column are larger than any horse will be able to assimilate, 
but a continuous canter or even slow trot for the whole distance 
of 20 miles represents an amount of work rarely performed by 
the horse. If we assume that one-third of the distance was 
traveled in a walk, one-third in a slow trot, and one-third in a 
canter, we find that the total time required would be 14,960 
seconds, the total energy used 11,874,000 foot-pounds, and the 
corresponding feed requirements 4.25 pounds of digestible 
matter. This added to the feed required for maintenance 
amounts to 10.52 pounds of digestible matter. A horse walking 
20 miles will require seven hours and twenty minutes. If equal 
distances are traveled in walk, trot and canter, it will take four 
hours and nine minutes. The total energy spent in the former 



» Landw. Jahrb., 1887, Suppl. Ill, p. 120. 



Invi'stigaiions Concerning the Horse. 



279 



case with a rider will call for 9.12 pounds of digestible sub- 
stances in the feed (exclusive of crude fiber), and in the latter 
10.52 pounds. A daily ration of 8.8 pounds of good meadow 
hay and about 11 pounds of oats will supply the demand for the 
former effort, and 8.8 pounds of hay and 13.2 pounds of oats the 
latter. 

438. Rate of movement. — In practice it is generally assumed 
that the speed of the horse per second amounts to 4.1 feet in 
walking; in slow trot, 8.2 feet; in rapid trot, 12.3 feet; in short 
canter, 16.4 feet; in canter, 20.5 feet, and in full gallop, 24.6 feet. ^ 

The strain of work by a full-grown, well-fed horse can, accord- 
ing to Eueff, continue on an average for eight hours a day; for 
instance, ahorse weighing about 900 pounds can carry 176 pounds, 
with a speed of 4.1 feet per second, for eight hours without suf- 
fering exhaustion, traveling in that time a little more than 22 
miles. The length of time can be increased, but if more energy 
is called into play by increasing both the load and the speed, the 
animal will become exhausted. If, for instance, both the load 
and the speed be increased one-fourth, the working hours must 
be shortened one-fourth, and vice versa. 

439. Influence of rapidity of work. — The amount of work which 
a horse is able to perform on a certain ration remains practically 
the same whether done during a shorter or longer period of time, 
or by hauling a smaller or greater load. The following summary 
given by Wolff ^ shows this statement to be correct: 

Influence of rapidity of work by the horse — Wolff. 



Period. 


No. of 
turns of 
sweep. 


Load. 


Distance 
walked. 


Period of 
walking. 


Total day's 
work per- 
formed. 


Work 

per 
second. 


I 


1,000 
750 
600 


Lbs. 

88 
132 
176 


Feet. 

86,560 
64,920 
51,950 


Minutes. 

515 
396 
354 


Foot- 
pounds. 

12,300,200 
12,279,300 
12,078,400 


Foot- 
pounds. 

397.8 


II 


517.0 


Ill 


568.2 







The total work done remained practically the same in all cases, 
and the nutritive condition of the horse was apparently unchanged. 
1 Wolff, Landw. Jahrb., 1887, Suppl. Ill, p. 119. 2 Loc. cit., p. 71. 



280 Feeds and Feeding. 

The ability of the horse to perform a definite amount of work was 
therefore the same whether it was performed in less than six hours 
or in more than eight hours. 

440. An example of severe work. — Wolff cites the intense work 
of the mail-coach horses on the route from Plieningen to Stutt- 
gart, Germany. Two strongly-built, spirited horses, in good 
flesh, drawing a heavy mail-coach, often carrying eight passen- 
gers, go twice daily out and home, up and down the mountain 
road at a trot. The total distance traveled is 35 miles, with an 
average speed of 7.87 feet per second. These horses are fed 
daily per head from 22 to 24 pounds of oats mixed with cut straw, 
and in addition hay ad liMtum, of which they eat very little — 
often none at all. The oats consumed contained from 13.2 to 14.5 
pounds of digestible matter, and the day's work represents at 
least 21, GGO, 000 foot-pounds per horse. When the feed equivalent 
of the work performed is subtracted, much less than 9.25 pounds 
of the digestible matter remains as the maintenance ration when 
calculated on the basis of a weight of 1, 100 pounds per horse. 

44!. The German army horse. — The German army horse often 
travels over 40 miles in a day, one-third of the distance being in 
a walk, trot and gallop, respectively. This work means an ex- 
penditure of energy amounting to not less than 23,748,000 foot- 
pounds, or a feed requirement of 14.77 pounds of digestible matter, 
including the food of support. The horsos are fed on an average a 
ration consisting of only 5.5 pounds of hay, 11 pounds of oats, 
and some cut straw. This ration contains only about 8.8 pounds 
of digestible components, and "it is therefore not hard to under- 
stand why the horses lose heavily in weight during the maneuvers, 
and that, when these are over, a large number of animals have to 
be disposed of as not adapted for use in military service; they are 
also unfit for almost any other work." 

III. The Investigations of Ch'andeau and Leclerc. 

442. Digestibility of horse feeds. — Grandeau and Leclerc^ stud- 
led the digestibility of horse feeds and the relation of food to the 
amount of work performed by the light draft horses of the Paris 

1 Ann. de la Sci. Agron., 1884, Vol. II, p. 325. 



Investigations Concerning the Sorse. 



281 



Cab Company. They determined tlie digestibility successively of 
maintenance rations, rations fed horses when walking without 
load, and rations for light- working horses. Three horses were 
included in the experiments, the rations consisting of about three- 
fourths grain and one-fourth coarse feed supplied in the following 
quantities: 

Rations fed horses during digestion trials — Grandeau and Leclerc. 





Hay. 


Straw. 


Oats. 


Beans. 


Corn. 


Corn 
cake. 


Total. 


Maintenance ration 

Exercise ration 


Lbs. 

2.3 
2.5 
3.5 


Lbs. 

1.2 

1.4 
1.9 


Lbs. 

4.3 

4.8 
6.5 


Lbs. 

.9 
1.0 
1.4 


Lbs. 

3.3 
3.5 

4.8 


Lbs. 

.6 

.7 
1.0 


Lbs. 

12.6 
13.9 


^Valking ration 


19.1 







The three experimental rations stand in the ratio of 1: 1.1: 1.5. 
Each period lasted a month, the three horses being successively 
put on the same rations and subjected to the same conditions. The 
horses weighed 972, 945 and 992 pounds at the beginning of the 
experiments. The following average digestion coefficients for the 
above rations were obtained: 



Digestion coefficients for rations fed three horses 

Leclerc. 



Exercise. 



At rest 

Walking, no work 

"Walking, work 

Trot, no work 

Trot, work 



No. 

of 

trials. 


Organic 
matter. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Cellu- 
lose. 


Nitrogen- 
free ex- 
tract. 


21 


72 


74 


46 


77 


3 


72 


74 


44 


77 


3 


70 


72 


39 


75 


3 


69 


69 


40 


76 


6 


67 


67 


33 


73 



Grandeau and 



Ether 
extract. 



58 
59 
62 
53 
55 



The digestibility of the rations when the horses were walking 
a distance of about twelve miles per day was no smaller than when 
at rest. There was an extreme depression of 5 per cent, in the 
digestibility of the total organic matter and 7 per cent, in the 
protein when the horses were worked hard. (433) It further 
appears from the treble that the digestion of cellulose, which 
occurs principally in the colon or large intestine, is affected more 



282 



Feeds and Feeding. 



than any other constituent by the amount of exercise or work; 
the motion of the horse probably determines its more rapid pas- 
sage through the system. Grandeau states that the results accord 
with practical experience, which teaches that the digestion of 
horses is relatively the most efficient when they are resting or 
doing little work. 

443. Maintenance rations for horses. ^ — We have seen that by 
''maintenance ration" is understood the minimum supply of 
feed which will keep a horse from losing weight while at rest in 
the stable with only the small amount of walking exercise neces- 
sary to preserve health. (133) In Grandeau' s experiments with 
meadow hay as the sole diet, three horses were kept at rest for 
periods amounting to four or five months each, half an hour's 
walking exercise being allowed per day. Each horse received 
17.6 pounds of hay per day, which proved exactly sufficient to 
maintain his weight unaltered. The three horses did not digest 
the hay equally well, and thus each horse was really nourished 
and its weight maintained by somewhat diJBferent amounts of food. 
The average result for each horse was as follows: 



Maintenance experiments with horses fed mcadoio hay 
and Leclerc. 



G-r andean 



Weight of horse. 



Total organic matter 
digested per day. 



Actual 
amount. 




Per 1,000 
lbs. weight. 



No. 2, 897 pounds 

No. 3, 853 pounds 

No. 1, 806 pounds 

Mean of three hoi-ses for fourteen months . 



Lbs. 

6.57 
7.00 
7.82 
7.02 



Grandeau and Leclerc experimented with many other rations, 
but in only a few cases did their maintenance diets exactly meet 
the wants of the horse. These results are given in the next 
table; they are less valuable than those obtained with meadow 
hay, given above. 



* After Warington, London Live Stock Journal, 1894, p. 49, et seq. 



Investigations Concerning the Horse. 283 

Maintenance experiments with horses — Grandeau and Leclerc. 





Weight of 
horse. 


Total organic matter per day. 


Diet. 


In ration. 


Digested. 


Digested 

per 1,000 

lbs. weight. 


Hay alone (mean) 


Lbs. 

868 
91.'} 
1,01.3 
972 
906 


Lbs. 

14.08 
8.59 

11.57 
9.48 
9.49 


Lbs. 

6.09 
6.41 
8.33 
7.30 
6.74 


Lbs. 
7.02 


Oats alone (crushed) 


7.02 


Corn and oat straw 


8.22 


Corn, oats, hay and straw... 
Corn, oats, hay and straw... 


7.ro 

7.45 



These figures illustrate very plainly the weak point in a diet 
containing much hay or straw, viz., the large quantity which 
must be given to animals to produce a certain effect, due to the 
low digestibility of these feeds. 

444. Protein required in maintenance rations. ^ — In construct- 
ing a maintenance ration for an animal it is important to know 
what is the smallest quantity of protein required to replace the 
daily waste of the body; the ration should of course never supply 
less than this amount. The quantity does not seem to have been 
exactly determined in the case of the horse, but judging from 
the French experiments it must be quite small. The average 
amount of digestible albuminoids received daily by the three 
horses during fourteen months while fed entirely upon hay was 
only . 54 pounds per 1, 000 pounds live weight. This quantity cor- 
responds to that determined by German experiments as mini- 
mum quantities for an ox of 1,000 pounds kept on a maintenance 
diet. The minimum for the horse, is, however, less than the 
above average. Horse No. 3 during June and July received a 
daily average of only .48 pounds per 1,000 pounds weight, yet 
this was apparently sufficient, as the horse gained about five 
pounds in weight during these two months. In another case 
the same horse received daily, during one month, pnly .37 pounds 
of digestible albuminoids per 1,000 pounds live weight. The 
horse gained somewhat in weight while at rest, but the analyses 
of the urine showed that he lost rather more nitrogen than he 



1 After Wariugton, loc. cit. 



284 Feeds and Feeding. 

received in tlie food. We are therefore disposed to assume 
about .45 pounds of digestible protein per 1,000 pounds live 
weight as the minimum quantity for the maintenance of a horse. 
Since oats contain about nine per cent, of digestible prot^ein, 
about five pounds of oats daily would supply all the protein 
necessary to replace the wear of muscular tissue in the horse 
during rest. This amount of oats would contain about 4.3 pounds 
of organic matter, or 2.7 less than required according to the re- 
sults of Grandeau's exi^eriments. The horse would therefore be 
unable to hold his own on five pounds of oats alone, but would 
need nearly as much hay in addition. (134) 

445. Nutritive ratio for work horses. — In the experiments by 
Grandeau conducted in 1889-90, the question of the most profit- 
able nutritive ratio for work horses was considered. ^ (132^) In 
place of the ration previously fed, having a nutritive ratio of 
about 1 : 7, an Indian corn and straw ration, having a ratio of 
1 : 10, and one of beans and straw, with a ratio of 1 : 3, were fed. 
The effect of these rations was studied with three horses for a 
year, they being at rest in the stall, or given walking or trot- 
ting exercise, or work at the sweep at a walking or trotting 
pace, or finally given work before the carriage. The rations 
varied of course with the work performed, but the same propor- 
tions of each feed given during rest were continued during the 
other periods, the quantities only being increased. The corn ra- 
tion fed during rest was 9.4 pounds corn, 5.4 pounds cut straw; 
the bean ration 9 pounds beans, 8.5 pounds cut straw. The straw 
fed was barley straw during 1889 and oat straw during 1890. 
The average weight of the three horses during the whole experi- 
ment was, for corn periods 976.8 and for bean periods 1,045.5 
pounds. The increase in weight was partly due to the larger 
quantity in nutrients of the bean ration, amounting to about 6 per 
cent. In spite of the larger quantities of nutrients fed during the 
bean periods, the effect of the rations was about the same, and 
when a difference occurred it was in favor of the corn. A better 
utilization of the fodder must therefore have taken place during the 
corn periods, since there was no evidence of any difference in the 

1 Ann. de la Sci. Agr., 1892, p. 1. 



Investigations Concerning the Horse. 285 

nutritive condition of the horse or in its capacity for work in favor 
of beans. The main difference in the rations is in the greater 
protein content of the bean ration, the quantity of carbohydrates 
being practically the same in both cases. 

The conclusion drawn, therefore, is that a very narrow nutritive 
ratio is not advantageous, but that experience must still decide 
how far the ration may be profitably widened. The author believes 
that 1 : 7 is about a correct nutritive ratio for the utilization of all 
components of the ration for the work horse. (434) 

446. Feed required for performing work. — Grandeau's re- 
searches 1 do not furnish much information as to the quantity of 
feed required for the performance of known amounts of work, for 
although graduated amounts of measured work were performed 
by the horses under each diet, it was rare that the ration proved 
exactly sufficient for maintaining the horses' weight without gain 
or loss. Some points of importance were, however, clearly made 
out. One of these is the effect of pace on the amount of labor 
exerted and the feed required therefor. Thus, a horse walking 
12.5 miles per day was kept in condition with a daily ration of 
19.4 pounds of hay, while one of 24 pounds was insufficient when 
the same distance was covered at a trot. Again, a horse walking 
the above distance and hauling a load, the additional work being 
equivalent to 1,943 foot- tons, was sufficiently nourished by a 
ration of 26.4 pounds of hay, but one of 32.6 pounds (all the 
horse would eat) was not enough to maintain its weight when the 
same work was done at a trot. That work is performed at least 
cost to the system when done slowly is a fact well recognized by 
every old and feeble man, but the principle has not generally 
been recognized as true in all cases. 

Some of the reasons why rapid labor is less economically per- 
formed than slow labor are readily apparent. When a horse is 
trotting, the frequency of the pulse, and consequently the work 
performed by the heart, is much increased. The trotting or gal- 
loping horse lifts his own weight at each step, but allows it to 
fall again, the result appearing only as heat. The temperature 
of the horse rises with exertion, and much heat is lost by the 

* After Warington, loc. eit. 



286 



Feeds and Feeding. 



evaporation of water through the skin and lungs. The propor- 
tion of the food employed to produce heat is thus increased, while 
the proportion appearing as work is diminished. There are other 
mechanical reasons why rapid motion generally consumes more 
power than slow motion, even when the distance traveled and the 
weight moved are the same. Grandeau gives tables showing the 
temperature of the body of the horse before and after work. 
When the work performed was at all severe, a very distinct rise 
in body temperature was observed — from 2° to 4° Fahr. 

447. Water drank by horses. — Grandeau and Leclerc ^ report 
the following quantities of water drank by two horses under dif- 
ferent conditions: 

Horse A. Horse B. 

Lbs. daily. Lbs. daily. 

Walking, performing no labor 24.9 30.7 

Walking, performing labor 28.9 35.4 

Trotting, performing no labor 31.3 27.6 

Trotting, performing labor 52.0 50.7 

448. Loss of weight during work. — Grandeau and Leclerc' s in- 
vestigations 2 furnish abundant material for studying the loss of 
weight of horses and the quantities of water drank during differ- 
ent kinds of work. The following are some of the results: 



Loss in weight of horses during work and when at rest ■ 

and Leclerc. 



Grandeau 





Av. 

live 
weight. 


Av. length of 


Walking, no 
work. 


Water 

drank 

per 

day. 


Walking, 
work. 


Water 

drank 

per 

day. 


No. of horse. 




Loss in weight. 


Loss in weight. 




A.M. 


P.M. 


A.M. 


P.M. 


A.M. 


P.M. 




Ill 


Lbs. 

850 
800 


Min. 

145 
145 


Min. 

151 
151 


Lbs. 

2.0 

2.8 


Lbs. 

1.6 

2.7 


Lbs. 

24.9 
30.7 


Lbs. 

2.8 
4.9 


Lbs. 

3.9 
5.4 


Lbs. 
28.9 


I 


35.4 










850 

«oa 


SO 
79 


79 
79 


Trotting, no 
work. 


31.3 
27.6 


Trotting, 
worli. 




Ill 


2.7 1 3.2 
4.5 1 5.5 


8.0 
9.7 


9.1 
10.5 


52.0 


I 


50.7 



The difference between the loss in weight of the horse when 
walking and trotting, or that obtained when working and idle, is 



1 Loc. cit. 

2 Ann. Sci. Agr., 1888, II, p. 276. 



InveMigations Concerning the Horse. 287 

due not only to wear of muscles and decomposition of nutritive 
fluids in the body of the animal, but is partly accounted for by 
the increased evaporation of water due to the heavier work. The 
water evaporated daily under varying conditions of exercise, as 
determined in experiments with different diets, was as follows: 

Water evaporated 
Condition of horse. . per day, lbs. 

At rest 6.4 

Walking exercise 8.6 

At work, walking 12.7 

Trotting 13.4 

At work, trotting 20.6 

The distance trotted was the same as that walked, and the load 
drawn was the same. The heat consumed in the evaporation of 
water was quite considerable. The exhalation of water by breath 
and perspiration thus diminishes the quantity of food available 
for the production of work. 

IV. Miscellaneous Findings by the Investigators. 

449. Relation of speed to work. — According to M. Fourier, ^ 
the daily work of a good horse has a maximum, under the best 
load for each speed, of about 2.95 feet per second, or 10,596 feet 
(two miles nearly) an hour. Taking this maximum as unity, 
he gives the following as the probable value of work per pound 
at other speeds: 

Feet. Miles. Daily work. 

6,560 1.25 0.69 

10,596 2.00 1.00 

13,120 2.50 .99 

19,680 3.75 .94 

26,240 5.00 .83 

32,800 6.25 .68 

39,360 7.50 .51 

45,920 8.75 .33 

52,480 10.00 .18 

59,040 11.25 .07 

The data presented show that the horse is at his best for draw- 
ing a load when moving at the rate of about two miles per hour. 

1 Genie Rural, III, 175, quoted by Thurston, The Animal as a Machine 
und a Prime Motor, p. 52. 



288 Feeds and Feeding. 

If tlie speed be increased beyoijd this, then less of the energy 
can be devoted to drawing the load. With a speed of ten miles 
per hour about two-tenths of the maximum work can be per- 
formed, and a further increase of a mile and a quarter per hour re- 
duces the possible work to less than one-tenth of the maximum. 

''Where the animal must develop maximum power continuously 
at any considerable speed, the number required for a specific 
work will always be greatly increased. Thus, in coaching, the 
proprietors of mail-coaches, even on the admirable highways of 
Great Britain, maintain one horse per mile of route for each 
coach and worked in fours, so that, going and returning, each 
travels eight miles per day, working only an hour or less each 
day on the average. The coach weighs, loaded, two tons, and 
its coefficient of friction on good roads is about .035." 

Draft horses moving two and one-half miles an hour are ex- 
pected to do seven times the work of coach horses moving ten 
miles. 1 

450. Work done by the horse and the mule. — Eennie^ found 
the hauling power of a draft horse weighing 1,200 pounds 
equal to about 108 pounds at 2.5 miles an hour, or 22,300 foot- 
pounds per minute, for 8 hours per day — a twenty-mile haul. 
This is a little over two-thirds of a Watt horse-power, at which 
value Eennie rates the average draft horse, and this is taken 
to be, ordinarily, five times the power of a man. Between 2.5 
and 4 miles an hour, the hauling power of the horse is nearly 
inversely as the speed. 

The mule carries a load of 200 to 400 pounds, and its day's 
work consists, usually, in the transportation of the equivalent of 
5,000 to 6,000 pounds one mile. The ass carries 175 pounds and 
upward, and its day's work is the equivalent of 8,000 to 4,000 
j)Ounds one mile. 

According to Weisbach, a horse should be able to carry 240 
I)Ounds on its back 3.5 feet per second ten hours a day. Carrying 
160 pounds he should be able to trot seven feet per second seven 
hours a day, doing in the day nearly ten per cent, less work than 
before. 



» Barbour, Cyclopsedia of Manufactures. 

* Thurston, The Animal as a Machine and a Prime Motor, p. 59. 



Investigations Concerning the Horse. 289 

The i)ulling power of a draft animal is said to be, as a rnle, 
about one-fifth its weight. Its usual effort, in the case of the 
horse at least, is seldom in excess of one-tenth, or about one-half 
the maximum. One hundred pounds is a common pull for the 
average horse in draft vehicles. 

In racing the requirement of speed reduces the work performed 
(carrying the rider) to the smallest amount possible. Law writes: ^ 
''When it is considered that an ounce of additional loading to 
the same horse may make the difference of a yard or more in half 
a mile of running, it will be seen how greatly the weight borne 
may affect the issue in the case of horses of equal powers." 

451. Investigations by Muentz. — Miintz ^ determined the digesti- 
bility of a large number of feeding stuffs for horses at rest receiv- 
ing only one kind of feed at a time. The digestion coefficients 
for the total organic matter were: Corn, 94.5 per cent.; barley, 
84.5 per cent.; beans, 84.5 per cent.; oats, 75.1 percent.; wheat 
bran, 93.3 per cent.; meadow hay, 43.3 to 61.0 per cent.; wheat 
straw, 49.4 per cent. ; carrots, 94.6 per cent. Corn and bran thus 
appear to be the most digestible of the common horse feeds. (175) 
The digestibility attributed to wheat straw is higher than that 
calculated from Wolff's experiments, in which it was fed in con- 
nection with other feeds of known digestibility. Twenty- one per 
cent, of the organic matter was calculated as digestible in Wolff's 
experiments made with three lots of straw in six single trials. " 

In Miintz' s experiments, 33 pounds of straw were consumed 
daily by the horse during the last month, supplying 13 pounds of 
digestible matter, yet the horse died from exhaustion; the ration 
in fact supplied only . 157 pounds of digestible protein, or about 
one-third of the quantity necessary for maintenance. 

452. Water drank by the horse. — The amount of water drank 
by the horse varies with the character of the feed, as shown in the 
researches of the various experiments. It is smallest when the 
diet is largely made up of concentrates and largest when roughage 
only is given. With the mixed diet employed for the Paris cab 
horse the average proportion of water to dry matter was 2.1 : 1 

^ Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Isles. 
2 Warington, London Live Stock Journal, 1894, pp. 9, 49. 
8 Dietrich and Konig, Futterm., Vol. II, p. 1097. 
19 



290 



Feeds and Feeding. 



when the horse was at rest, and 3. 6 : 1 when the horse did cab 
service. Individual horses differ greatly in the quantity of water 
drank. The relation of the feed eaten, work done and water drank 
by horses is shown by the data given in Wolff's experiments. ^ 

Amount of water drank by horses — Wolff, 





Feed per day. 


Daily work. 


Daily 
teni- 
pfra- 
ture. 


Water 
drank. 


Water. 


Water 
per lb. 
dry 
mat- 
ter. 


JPeriod. 


Hay. 


Oats. 


Revo- 
lutions 

of 
sweep. 


Trac- 
tion. 


In 
dung. 


In 
urine. 


Ex- 
pired 
and 
per- 
spired. 


1 

2 


Lbs. 

15.4 
15.4 
15.4 
11.0 
G.6 
6.6 

15.4 
24.3 


Lbs. 

12.1 
12.1 
12.1 
12.1 
12.1 
15.4 
Corn. 
7.7 


1,000 
750 
600 
550 
350 
700 

650 
300 


Lbs. 

88 
132 
176 
132 
132 
132 

132 
132 


c. 

-5.1 
4.1 

-.1 

10.2 

8.5 

17.8 

19.4 
19.5 


Lbs. 

61.5 
64.6 
58.8 
47.1 
35.8 
41.3 

58.9 
73.0 


Lbs. 

29.6 
30.1 
29.8 
21.6 
16.9 
20.5 

24.1 
35.3 


Lbs. 

18.3 
19.4 
19.8 
15.6 
11.4 
13.6 

15.4 
21.6 


Lbs. 

17.7 
19.0 
13.5 
13.1 
10.0 
10.4 

22.2 
18.7 


Lbs. 

2.8 
2 9 


3 


2 7 


4 


2 4 


5 


2 4 


6 


2 4 


7 


3 1 


8 


3.5 









The water in the feed, which ranged from 2.7 to 4.2 pounds, 
is not included in the first part of the table. The figures in the 
last column show the number of pounds of water drank and that 
contained in the feed per pound of dry matter consumed. The 
preceding shows that the amount of water drank by the horse 
varies more than that of any other domestic animal and should 
be supplied according to requirements. The wisdom of supplying 
it frequently during hard labor is plainly indicated in these data. 

453. Decrease in weight of the horse during work. — Eueff ^ in- 
vestigated the loss in weight of horses dm-ing work, correction 
being made for the fodder eaten and the dung dropped. Farm 
horses doing medium work lost on an average 7. 7 pounds in weight 
during eleven hours. The following results were obtained with 
German army horses: A division of riding horses ridden for 25 
minutes in walk, trot and gallop lost on an average 4 pounds in 
weight. A gelding 8 years old, carrying a weight of 176 pounds, 
in training as a school horse, lost 11 pounds in 25 minutes; another 
horse the same; after 24 hours only 1 pound was regained. A 



1 Landw. Jahrb. 1887, Suppl. Ill, p. 109. 

' Landw. Wochenbl. d. k. k. Ackerbaum., 1870, 109; v. Gohren, Fut- 
terungeslehre, 1872, p. 370. 



Investigations Concerning the Horse. 291 

14-year-old blind stallion ridden for an hoiir and thirty minutes 
by a rider weighing 1G6 pounds lost 33 pounds weight; during 
24 hours 22 pounds were regained. A 23-year-old mare weighing 
770 pounds, ridden for a distance of six miles in walk or trot, lost 
22 pounds. 

454. Variation in weight. — Boussingault^ studied the varia- 
tions in weight of horses while on the same feed and under simi- 
lar conditions. The changes in the weights of two horses, found 
in fifteen daily weighings between December 16 and 31, are shown 
below: 2 

Weight of Weight of 

horse, lbs. mare, lbs. 

Average, December 16 to 31 994.4 1,081.9 

Maximum weight 1,010.9 1,092.7 

Minimum weight 985.6 1,064.8 

Greatest difference above average 16.5 10.8 

Greatest difference below average 8.8 17.1 

Difference between extreme w^eights,. 25.3 27.9 

Another horse 12 years old, taken fasting at four o'clock in the 
morning, weighed 1,051 pounds. At the same hour of the next 
day he weighed 1,060 pounds, and at the same hour on the third 
day 1,038 pounds. Boussingault calls attention to the necessity 
of carrying on feeding experiments for a considerable time and 
with several animals, in order to escape, or at all events lessen, 
the errors that would be introduced into the conclusions by these 
accidental differences in weight. 

455. Effect of disturbed conditions on horses. — Lehmann, Hage- 
mann and Zuntz^ found that the disturbance of horses in the 
stable has a decided influence on the consumption of feed. The 
presence of many flies caused an excretion of carbonic acid of 10 
per cent, above that in case of those not so annoyed. 

* Agronomic, Chemie Agricole et Physiologic, 5 (1874), p. 156. 
» Ann. de la Sci. Agron., 1884, II, p. 330; llural Economy, p. 397. 
« Landw. Jahrb., XXIII, 1894, p. 125. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

FEEDS FOR THE HOESE. 

456. Oats. — Horses nurtured on oats show mettle whicli can- 
not be reached by the use of any other feeding stuff. (188) Then, 
too, there is no grain so safe for horse feeding, the animal rarely 
being seriously injured if by accident or otherwise the groom 
deals out an over supply. This safety is due in no small measure 
to the presence of the oat hull, which causes a given weight of 
grain to possess considerable volume, because of which there is 
less liability of mistake in measuring out the ration; further, the 
digestive tract cannot hold a quantity of oat grains sufficient to 
produce serious disorders. Unless the horse is hard pressed for 
time or has poor teeth, oats should be fed in the whole condition. 
Musty oats should be avoided. 

Horsemen generally agree that new oats should not be used, 
though Boussingault, 1 conducting extensive experiments with 
army horses, arrived at the conclusion that new oats do not pos- 
sess the injurious qualities attributed to them. 

457. Substitutes for oats. — According to experiments made 
at Hohenheim (Germany) and Paris, oats may often be profit- 
ably replaced by other concentrated and easily digested feeding 
stuffs for the production of work by horses. Because of their 
palatability it seems desirable and advantageous not to entirely 
omit oats from the ration, but only to reduce the allowance to a 
certain minimum. This is, however, very important at times 
on account of the high market value of this grain. During 
feeding experiments at Hohenheim in 1893-94, a horse was fed 
a daily ration consisting of 6 pounds of meadow hay, 5 pounds of 
cut straw, 2 pounds of oats, 3 pounds of field beans, 8 pounds of 

» Ann. de la Sci. Agron., 1884, II, p. 331. 



Feeds for the Horse. 293 

corn and about 1 ounce of salt per 1,000 pounds weight. The 
nutritive ratio of this ration is about 1:6.4. In case of work 
horses, especially those doing rapid work, not accustomed to 
voluminous rations and not having the capacity for them, more 
intensive feeding will be in order, such, for instance, as that 
practiced by the Paris Omnibus Company, where 28 per cent, of 
the rations for horses consists of roughage (meadow hay and oat 
straw in the proportion of 2 : 1), and 72 per cent., or nearly 
three-fourths, of concentrates (oats, bean, corn, oil cake), the 
nutritive ratio being about 1 : 7.2. ^ 

458. Relative value of oats, beans and corn. — As a result of 
feeding experiments with horses at Hohenheim, Wolff ^ concludes 
that in feeding work horses, 4 pounds of oats are equivalent to 3.5 
pounds of field beans, and 4 pounds of beans to 3.5 pounds of 
corn. On the basis of these figures, oats, beans and corn have a 
relative value for horses of 4 : 3.5 : 3, or perhaps more correctly, 
5:4.5:4. 

459. Relative value of hay and oats. — According to Wolff s^ ex- 
periments, 2.5 pounds of good meadow hay have an equal nutritive 
value of 1.5 pounds of oats, if the digestible crude fiber be in- 
cluded in both cases; without this the ratio will be 2 : 1. 

460. Barley. — This useful grain for the horse has as yet been lit- 
tle fed in the eastern United States, probably because of its gen- 
eral high price. On the Pacific coast barley is extensively used 
for feeding horses at all kinds of work. Where the horse's teeth 
are good and the labor not severe, barley may be fed whole. 
Ground barley, when mixed with the saliva, like wheat, forms a 
pasty mass in the mouth, and is therefore unpleasant to the horse 
while eating; if, instead of grinding, the grains are crushed to 
flattened discs between iron rollers, they are more ijalatable and 
acceptable to the horse. (178) 

461. Dried brewers' grains. — At the New Jersey Station, * dried 
brewers' grains were fed to street-car horses in place of oats. 
Horses averaging 1,C00 pounds in weight were required to make 

1 Wolff, Ldw. Jahrb., XXIV, p. 2G7. 

2 Loc. cit. 

8 Ldw. Jahrb., XXIV, p. 269. 
* Rept. 1892. 



294 Feeds and Feeding. 

four trips dailj of six miles eacli, with increased work on Sundays. 
The rations were as follows: 



Oat Ration. 

Pounds. 

Hay 6 

Wheat bran 2 

Com, unground 4 

Oats 8 



Dried Brewers' Grains Ration. 
Pounds. 

Hay 6 

Wheat bran 2 

Corn, unground 4 

Dried brewers' grains 8 

Each ration was fed to a group of four horses for a month, then 
the two feeds reversed for a second month. Then followed a 
period in which the stable ration prevailed with both lots, the 
trial closing with a month's feeding of the two rations to the 
original lots, as in the first instance. The veterinarian in charge 
of the horses reports: ' ' I have watched the horses closely from the 
beginning to the end of the experiment and have failed to dis- 
cover any ill effects from the use of dried brewers' grains. The 
horses fed the grains have been as healthy as I have ever known 
them to be." The conclusions of the Station authorities were: 
"That in both rations the nutrients furnished were saflficient to 
maintain the weight of the animals under average work," and 
" That on the whole, a pound of dried brewers' grains was quite 
as useful as a pound of oats in a ration for work horses." It was 
found that the oat ration cost, at prevailing prices, 24. 3 cents per 
day, while the ration containing brewers' grains cost 19.4 cents, 
a difference of 4.9 cents per day per horse, or twenty per cent, of 
the cost of the oat ration — an insignificant amount perhaps for a 
single horse, but making an aggregate of great importance for 
large establishments. 

According to Wolff, ^ "The effect of dried brewers' grains 
has been found to be uncertain, and on that account their use 
has been abandoned by the German war department." While 
brewers' grains dried by any open-air process may be subject to 
criticism, the charge cannot stand for grains which are, dried 
rapidly in partial vacuum. (183) 

462. Wheat.— At the North Dakota Station, 2 Shepperd fed 
No. 1 hard unground wheat to three horses for four weeks, sup- 

» Farm Foods, Eng. ed., p. 247. 
2 Bui. 20. 



Feeds for the Horse. 



295 



plying eacli animal about fourteen pounds daily. These horses 
averaged nine hours' work daily for all the working days of the 
month. The horses gained in weight during the trial. Concern- 
ing wheat as a horse feed Shepperd writes: ''It was with diffi- 
culty that they (the horses) were kept from getting ' off feed ' 
and otherwise deranged in digestion, when fed this ration of pure 
wheat. A large proportion of the kernels were passed through 
the alimentary tract unbroken, while other grains were broken 
but only partially digested. . . . The test demonstrated clearly 
that it is not advisable to use wheat alone as a grain ration for 
horses, and the less expert the feeder the greater the risk. ' ' ( 166-9) 
463. Bran and shorts compared with oats. — Shepperd^ com- 
pared bran and oats as a feed for work horses and mules in sum- 
mer, eight horses and four mules being used. The animals were 
divided into two even lots, all receiving good prairie hay for 
roughage. To one lot was fed oats, while the other received a 
mixture of bran and shorts, equal parts by weight. The horses 
averaged somewhat more than seven hours work per day, the 
labor being quite severe. 



Bran and shorts, equal parts by weight, compared with oats • 

Dakota Station. 



North 





Grain 
eaten. 


Gain or loss 
in weight. 


Work 
done. 


Feeding bran and shorts. 
Total, equal to 870 horses one day 


Lbs. 

12,910 
103 

11,838 
105 


Lbs. 

Loss 10 
Loss 1-12 

Gain 10 
Gain 1-12 


Hours. 

5,705 
46 

4 7Qfi 


Weekly average, per horse 


Feeding oats. 
Total, equal to 792 horses one day 


W^eekly average, per horse 


42 







It is shown that the horses fed bran and shorts ate somewhat 
less concentrates per week, lost a little in weight, but did three 
and one-half hours more work per week each than those fed oats. 
"Upon the whole, bran and shorts proved of equal worth to oats 
for feeding horses and mules. (174-5) 

464. Bran, whole wheat and shorts versus bran and shorts. — 
Shepperd ^ also compared the value of a mixture of bran, wheat 



1 Loc. cit. 



2 Loc. cit. 



296 



Feeds and Feeding. 



and shorts, equal parts by weight, with bran and shorts only, for 
horses. 

Feeding 'bran, wheat and shorts, in opposition to bran and shorts — 
North Dakota Station. 



Feeding bran, wheat and shorts. 

Total, 12 horses 4 weeks 

Average, 1 horse 4 weeks 

Feeding bran and shorts. 

Total, 12 horses 4 weeks 

Average, 1 horse 4 weeks 



Grain 

eaten. 



Lbs, 

5,068 
422 

4,941 
412 



Gain or loss 
in weight. 



Lbs. 

Gain 20 
Gain 2 

Gain 160 
Gain 13 



Work 
done. 



Hours. 

1,775 
148 

1,642 
137 



The summary shows that each horse fed whole wheat, in addi- 
tion to bran and shorts, while doing eleven hours more work con- 
sumed ten pounds more grain and gained eleven pounds less per 
month, on the average, than those getting bran and shorts only. 
This indicates that whole wheat has no advantage over the same 
weight of bran and shorts in the ration. 

465. Ground wheat and bran compared with oats. — Shepperd ^ 
next fed a mixture of two parts ground wheat and one part bran, 
by weight, to one lot of work horses, while another received whole 
oats. The trial began in November and continued until March, 
with the results here given: 

Whole oats compared with a mixture of two parts ground ivheat and one 
part brail, by weight — North Dalcota Station. 



Feeding wheat meal and bran. 

Total, 6 horses 4 weeks , 

Average per horse, 4 weeks... 
Feeding oafs. 

Total, 6 horses 4 weeks 

Average per horse, 4 weeks... 



Grain 
eaten. 



Lbs. 

1,266 
211 

1,413 
235 



Gain or loss 
in weight 



Lbs. 

Gain 95 
Gain 16 

Loss 5 
Loss 1 



Work 
done. 



Iloure. 

310 
52 

296 
49 



In these trials, although the horses getting oats ate somewhat 
more grain, they showed a slight loss in weight while doing some- 
what less work than those fed ground wheat and bran. 



^ Log. cit. 



Feeds for the Horse. 297 

Sliepperd concludes: ''The horses did nicely on the ration 
consisting of two parts ground wheat and one part bran with 
prairie hay. "Wheat is a concentrated food and needs this amount 
of bran to make it loose and cooling enough for the digestive sys- 
tem of the horse." 

466. Boiled rye as a substitute for oats. — It having been stated 
that rye, boiled till the grain bursts, may be used as a substitute 
for an equal volume of oats in the keep of a horse, Boussingault^ 
tested the matter with two horses which had been previously fed 
a ration consisting of 22 pounds of hay and 5.5 pounds of oats. 
The same volume of boiled rye, containing 4.15 pounds of mi- 
cooked grain, w^as then substituted for the oats. Average weight 
of horses: first weighing, 1,004.5 pounds; second weighing, 903 
pounds; loss per head during 11 days, 41.5 pounds. 

Boussingault writes: ''In fact with such a ration as this, in 
which water was made to replace solid corn, no other result could 
reasonably be expected." (177) 

467. Indian corn. — 'Next to oats, corn is the common grain for 
horses in America, being used most largely in the southern por- 
tion of the corn belt and southward in the cotton states. While 
conceding that corn is not the equal of oats as a grain for the horse, 
nevertheless, because of its low cost and the high feeding value it 
possesses, this grain will be extensively used where large numbers 
of horses must be economically maintained. Corn may be fed whole 
to horses, but generally it is made fine by grinding and mixed 
■with various other concentrates. (158) Corn and cob meal is 
preferable to pure corn meal. Corn meal alone is a sodden sub- 
stance in the animal' s stomach, and should be diluted or extended 
with something of light character. Bran serves well for this pur- 
pose because of its lightness and cooling effect as well as the protein 
and mineral matter it furnishes. (451) Corn is best suited to 
animals at plain, steady work. Its supply should be limited with 
colts and growing horses because of its lack of ash and protein. 
Wolffs quotes Lehmann in the following statement: "Maize 
contains a high proportion of digestible carbohydrates, and tends 

* Rural Economy. 

2 Farm Foods, Eug. ed., p. 246. 



298 Feeds and Feeding. 

to make tlie animal fat and liable to sweat; while it improves their 
appearance, it somewhat detracts from their physical energy." 

468. The Paris Omnibus Company's experiments. — The Paris 
Omnibus Company, employing nearly ten thousand horses, began 
feeding trials with Indian corn in 1874. i Sixteen horses of dif- 
ferent ages having up to the time of the experiment been fed a 
ration consisting of 18.7 pounds of oats, 1.8 pounds of bran, with 
hay and straw additional, received, gradually, more and more corn 
in the place of oats, until after one month the oats were replaced 
by corn. The horses weighed on an average 1194.1 pounds at 
the beginning of the experiment, and at the end, four months 
later, 1219.8 jjounds. They were in good flesh and had grown 
fat, although they had worked hard during this time. It was 
found, however, that they were less spirited and seemed to lose in 
energy when more than nine pounds of oats were rei)laced by 
corn. The conclusions were that a mixture of 6.6 pounds of 
com and 12.1 pounds of oats will prove most satisfactory for work 
horses, the ratio varying in each case according to the tempera- 
ment of the animal. Twenty-five other horses doing 'bus service 
were fed 11 pounds of oats and 6.6 pounds of corn, after a longer 
transition period, with hay and straw as before, and after six 
months equally favorable results were obtained. All horses of the 
company were fed in this manner during 1876 and afterwards. 
They maintained their weight, and according to the records of the 
company did more work in 1876 than in 1875 on the oat ration. 
*' Compared with the time when only oats were fed, they are 
more calm at the present and lack the former abundance of 
vivacity; but on the other hand, work as well and as rapidly as 
before." The company saved $9.26 per horse during 1876 by the 
partial substitution of corn for oats. 

469. Muntz's experiments. — In 1881, Muntz conducted experi- 
ments with horses belonging to the Paris Omnibus Company,* 
the first of which was with 362 horses fed 9.5 pounds oats, 6.7 
pounds corn, 2.1 pounds beans, 1.1 pounds bran, 10.4 pounds 
hay and 11.4 pounds straw daily. The average weight of the 

1 Journ. de I'Agr. 1877, p. 127; Biederni. Centralbl. 1877, p. 255. 

« Reeueil. de Med. Veter., Feb. 1880; Biederm. Centralbl. 1881, p. 767. 



Feeds for the Horse. 299 

horses remained the same during the experiment; the amount of 
work done did not change, showing that the ration met the re- 
quirements of the animals. In the second series more corn and 
less oats were fed, the ration being 6.8 pounds oats, 9.7 pounds 
corn, 3.3 pounds beans, .9 pounds bran, 6.6 pounds hay and 13.2 
pounds straw. The animals gained in weight on this ration, the 
work remaining the same as before. 

According to the experience gained by the company, corn may 
be best fed crushed to horses. It was found most advantageous 
to grind the corn with the cobs left in. Corn and cob meal is 
considered a better feed than pure corn meal on account of its 
higher content of cellulose, which renders it more like oats. 
Thirty per cent, of an oat ration may be replaced by corn and 
cob meal. Similar reports as to the availability of corn for 
horse feeding are published in regard to the Berlin Street Car 
Company, ^ the Berlin mail-horse stables, ^ and the New York 
Omnibus Company. ^ 

At the Utah Station, * Sanborn found that horses fed com and 
timothy did j^s well as those fed oats, clover and timothy hay. 
Mills, 5 at the same Station, found that corn sustained the weight 
of horses better than oats. 

470. An adverse report oa corn feeding. — It is stated ^ that the 
stockholders of the London Omnibus Company objected to the 
intensive feeding of corn to the horses of the company, '^ because 
the mortality had increased with the extensive feeding of corn and 
the horses seem to wear out much sooner." The horses fattened 
by the corn feeding, but the muscular system was not kept strong, 
and the nervous force of the animals decreased, as a result of 
which the veterinarian was oftener consulted than before the ex- 
tensive use of corn began. Similar experiences are reported in 
the case of the street- car horses of Berlin. ' 



»Nordd. Landw. 1881, p. 141; Biederm. Centralbl. 1881, p. 768. 

2 Ldw. Blatt. f. Oldenburg, 1880, p. 180. 

3 Thur. Ldw. Zeit. 1880, p. 161. See also the exhaustive report on the 
subject by Bruckmiiller on experiments conducted with army horses 
under the auspices of the Austrian government, Oest. Viertelj. f. Wiss. 
Vet. kunde, 49 (1878), p. 1; Biederm. Centralbl. 1878, p. 470. 

-• Bui. 30. 5 Bui. 36. 

6 Fuhling's Landw. Zeitung, 39, 1890, p. 63. 

' Jahrsb. Agrl. Cb., 1890, p. 641. 



300 



Feeds and Feeding. 



471. Kloepfer's conclusions concerning corn. — Dr. Xloepfer ^ 
draws the following conclusions from investigations conducted by 
himself and others concerning the value of Indian corn as a food 
for hoi-ses: ''Corn is well adapted to replace oats, since the 
<'hemical composition of both cereals, especially as regards protein 
and fat, are nearly the same. The whole grain feed may be made 
up of corn in winter time and three-fourths of it in summer time. 
Eive pounds of corn are equivalent to six pounds of oats. The 
lieaviest feed should be given at night. The change from oats to 
corn feed should occur very gradually, the transition period last- 
ing from two to four weeks according to the extent to which the 
oats are to be fed in connection with the corn. ISTew corn should 
not be fed to hoi'ses. The American dent varieties of corn are the 
best adapted to horse feeding." 

472. Feeds rich in protein compared with oats for colts. — Jordan, 
of the Maine Station, 2 conducted feeding experiments with colts 
in which oats were fed against a mixture of other concentrates, 
such as peas and wheat middlings, in the first trial, and gluten 
meal, linseed meal and middlings in the second trial. In the first 
trial, which lasted 137 days, oats when fed to three grade Per- 
cheron colts, 9, 16 and 18 months old, produced less growth than an 
equal weight of a mixture of peas and middlings, the relation of 
growth made being as 100 : 111. In the second trial, two Per- 
cheron colts, both 11 months old, were fed oats against middlings, 
gluten meal and linseed meal, in the proportion of 60 : 35 : 15. 
Ten pounds of hay were fed each colt daily in addition to the grain. 
The experiment lasted 84 days, the results being as follows: 

Feeding mixed grain to colts in opposition to oafs — Mahie Station. 





Period I. 

Grain 
mixture. 


Period II. 
Oats. 


Weight at 
beginning. 


Daily gain when on — 




Grain 
mixture. 


Oats. 


Colt I 


Lbs. 

6 
5 


Lbs. 

7 
6 


Lbs. 

711 
602 


Lbs. 

1.51 
1.16 


Lbs. 
.43 


Colt II 


.93 







1 Biederm. Centralbl. 1895, p. 275. 

2 Repts. 1891-92. 



Feeds for the Horse. 301 

In both experiments a greater growth was obtained from the 
mixed grains with both animals. (206) These trials show that 
when oats are high priced other concentrates may be substituted 
for them in colt feeding without checking growth. Some oats 
should be fed, if possible, because of their tonic effect. 

473. Peanut meal and malt sprouts. — Eusche ^ gives results of 
experiments showing that peanut meal and malt sprouts may be 
used with advantage as a feed for foals in place of oats. 

474. Cocoanut meal. — The French war department investi- 
gated the value of cocoanut meal for horses. ^ Ten army horses 
were fed cocoanut meal for four weeks in place of an equal quan- 
tity of oats in the ordinary ration. Five horses receiving the 
ordinary oat ration were included in the experiment and given 
the same work as the others. They were exercised only a little 
during the first period, January 12 to 30, viz., 8 to 9 miles. They 
were worked harder for the next two weeks, January 31 to Feb- 
ruary 12, 15-17.5 miles. Weighings were taken before and after 
the change was made with averages as follows: 

Cocoanut-meal ration. Ordinary ration. 
Pounds. Pounds. 

January 12 963.4 086.4 

January 31 977.5 992.9 

February 12 970.9 983.2 

The results proved that cocoanut meal was equal and even 
superior to the same weight of oats. According to French prices 
of feeding stuffs, a substitution as in the above experiment would 
bring about a reduction in the cost of keeping army horses of 
$10 each per year. (223) 

475. Compounding rations for work horses. — At the Kew Jersey 
Station, ^ Voorhees, studying to compound rations which should 
be low in cost but effective, conducted trials with two lots of two 
horses each, the work being as near uniform for each lot as could 
be arranged. In these trials corn meal and dried brewers' grains 
furnished the concentrates for one ration, while for the other corn 

1 Laudw. 2.5, 1889, p. 361; Jahrsb. Agrl. Ch. 1889, p. 621. 

2 Milch Zeit. 1883, p. 517. 
s Kept. 1893. 



302 



Feeds and Feeding. 



meal, wlieab bran and oil meal were used. The trial continued 
six months with the results reported in the tables below: 

Feeding low-priced rations to horses — New Jersey Station. 
Lot I. Ration: Dried brewers' grains and corn meal. 





Hay. 


Corn 
meal. 


Dried 
brewers' 
grains. 


Average 
weight. 


Cost of 
ration. 


Horse 1 


Lbs. 

8.0 
8.0 


Lbs. 

6.5 

0.2 


Lbs. 

6.5 

5.8 


Lbs. 

1,110 
1,191 


Cents. 
19.8 


Horse 2 


18.9 







Lot II. Ration: Corn meal, wheat bran and oil meal. 





Hay. 


Corn 
meal. 


Wheat 
bran. 


Oil 
meal. 


Average 

live 
weight. 


Cost of 
ration. 


Horse 3 


Lbs. 

8.0 
8.0 


Lbs. 

6.2 
0.9 


Lbs. 

5.0 

5.8 


Lbs. 

1.4 
1.7 


Lbs. 

1,127 
1,226 


Cents. 
20.8 


Hoi*se 4 


22.3 







The horses held their own in weight, and appeared in satis- 
factory condition throughout the whole period. The prices al- 
lowed for feed in the above tables are as follows: Timothy hay, 
$18; wheat bran, $17,505 ^orn meal, $22; dried brewers' grains, 
$17; linseed meal, $29. At these prices the cost of the rations 
was lowest where dried brewers' grains were used, and highest 
where wheat bran and oil meal were fed. A gardener living near 
the Station, guided by its teachings, fed a ration similar to No. 1 
with success, and effected a saving in his feed bills for the year 
of about $150 over previous cost under the customary feeding of 
the vicinity. Voorhees concludes: ''That the kind and quality 
of specific nutrients contained in feeds, and not their names, 
should guide in the preparation of rations. That while oats are 
an excellent feed, it is not alone because they are oats, but 
because of the amount and proportion of the more valuable 
nutrients, fat and protein, contained in them. That dried brew- 
ers' grains are a wholesome, nutritious and palatable horse feed, 
and at present prices they may be substituted for oats and a de- 
cided saving made in the cost of the ration." (183) 



Feeds for the Horse. 303 

476. Relative merits of the grains. — Settegast ^ discusses the 
relative value of grain feeds for horses as follo'ws: ''Among all 
cereals, oats are the best adapted to horse feeding; their place can 
hardly be filled in colt raising. In the ration for full-grown horses, 
rye and barley may to some extent be substituted for oats. A par- 
tial substitution of the seeds of legumes (beans, peas, vetches) for 
oats to the extent of about one-third the concentrates has been 
practiced in cases of continued heavy team work. The experi- 
ence of late years has further shown that corn may be considered 
as approximating oats in value for work horses. Experiments 
have shown that a ration of 17 pounds of corn and 10 pounds 
of straw is profitable for omnibus horses. In periods of rest the 
concentrates may advantageously be decreased one-half with rid- 
ing and work horses." 

477. Dried and soaked grain. — Wolff 2 found that in the case of 
healthy horses with good teeth, the utilization of beans and corn 
remained about the same whether fed whole and in dry condition, 
or fed after having been previously soaked in water for twenty- 
four hours, care being taken in the latter case to guard against 
loss of nutrients. (375) 

478. Timothy hay. — Although chemical analysis shows timothy 
hay not particularly rich in digestible nutrients, nevertheless 
it is the standard in its class throughout the northeastern United 
States. One reason for its popularity lies in the fact that it is 
easUy distinguished from hay of all other grasses, and both the 
farmer who grows it and the horseman who feeds it feel no un- 
certainty as to its identity or quality. Its freedom from dust 
commends good timothy hay as a horse feed, and it is an excellent 
roughage for horses, whose sustenance comes mostly from the 
grain they receive. (268) 

479. Clover hay. — Clover hay is generally so loaded with dust 
that horsemen have come to regard it with disfavor under all 
circumstances. This prejudice should be overcome, for well-made 
clover hay will serve a valuable purpose in the stable in many 
instances. Its relatively high content of protein makes it more 
nearly a balanced ration in itself, but the high proportion of in- 

1 Thierzucht, II, 110. 

2 Landw. Jahrb. 16, 1887, Sup. Ill, p. 21. 



304 Feeds and Feeding. 

digestible matter necessitates the consumption of too large a 
quantity to permit its extensive use with horses in active service. 
For growing colts and idle horses, bright, clean clover hay may 
often be fed with marked economy. With corn fodder or bright 
straw it may constitute the sole roughage for such animals. 

480. Fodder corn and stover. — Fodder corn, grown so thickly 
as to permit of only small "nubbins" forming, and cured in the 
shock into a bright, dust-free forage, is one of the best articles 
available for roughage in horse feeding. While the stalk and 
husk will be left uneaten, the leaves disappear with a relish 
when offered to horses under any conditions. Not only are 
corn leaves usually quite free from dust, but they are palatable 
and full of nutriment. For stallions, brood mares, idle horses 
and growing colts, corn forage of good quality will be found an 
economical substitute for timothy hay. When the tonnage of a 
field of fodder corn is compared with the yield of timothy hay from 
a like area, it is apparent that the forage of the corn plant should 
hold a prominent place with horsemen who seek economy while 
at the same time wishing to supply a palatable, nutritious rough- 
age. See Chapter X. 

481. Straw. — Some straw can always be fed to horses, the 
amount varying with the work and the purpose for which the 
animal is used. Idle horses, having ample time for masticating 
and digesting their feed, can subsist almost wholly on good bright 
straw; hard- worked animals and those required to move rapidly 
can make use of only a little, — the feeder must judge from the 
conditions how much to supply. It is a notable fact that many 
horses are fed costly hay for roughage when cheaper straw or 
fodder corn would prove equally satisfactory. In relative value 
for horse feeding, the straws rank in the following order: Oat, 
barley, wheat, rye, the last named being of slight utility. 

482. Millet hay injurious to horses. — Hiuebauch, veterinarian 
of the North Dakota Station, ^ reports that during the winter of 
1891-92 an ailment passing under the name of the "millet dis- 
ease" prevailed in North Dakota, about one animal in every ten 
so affected dying. It was called the millet disease because from 
ninety-five to ninety-eight animals out of every hundred affected 

1 Bui. 7. 



Feeds for the Horse. 305 

had previously been fed millet. Experiments were made in 
feeding millet hay to a number of horses for the purpose of 
studying its effect. The following statement relative to one 
test seems quite conclusive: ^ "By feeding her (a mare) millet 
(hay) for about three months, she would become so lame in the 
joints of the hind legs that it was almost impossible for her to 
walk, and on discontinuing the feeding of millet she would grad- 
ually recover, until at the end of three or four months she would 
again be in normal condition. As soon as that condition was 
reached, would again feed millet until the mare was in such a 
condition that she could scarcely stand, then again quit feeding 
millet. We have alternated with millet and other hay, produc- 
ing the conditions referred to at will, for nearly two years. In 
the meantime the horse has suffered in condition and does not at 
all resemble her former self She is valueless as far as work is 
concerned, and is only kept for experimental purposes. We are 
able at any time to demonstrate the effect from feeding millet, by 
allowing her to have millet exclusively as coarse food for a por- 
tion of two months." Letters sent to veterinarians, farmers and 
others in the state brought replies which showed that ill results 
had quite generally been observed from the use of millet, mani- 
fested usually by increased action of the kidneys. The bulletin con- 
cludes: ''Our experiments have thoroughly demonstrated that 
millet, when used entirely as a coarse food, is injurious to horses: 
First, in producing an increased action of the kidneys. Second, 
in causing lameness and swelling of the joints. Third, in produc- 
ing infusion of blood into the joints. Fourth, in destroying the 
texture of the bone, rendering it softer and less tenacious, so that 
traction causes the ligaments and muscles to be torn loose." 

It is remarkable that millet, one of the oldest known plants, 
and one that is used so extensively in various countries, should 
fall under this serious charge. Possibly hay from the plant is 
injurious in some districts while harmless elsewhere, or in some 
years it may prove deleterious while usually safe for feeding. 
Having been put on his guard, the horseman will use millet with 
caution, awaiting further reports from the investigators. It should 

1 Bui. 2G, N. Duk. Sta. 
20 



306 Feeds and Feeding. 

be noted tliat in the cases wliere tronble arose niillet hay was used 
exclusively for roughage. Ill effects can probably be avoided by 
using this hay in limited quantity for roughage and not continu- 
ously. Nothing unfavorable to the use of millet hay for cattle or 
sheep feeding has been reported. (272) 

483. Boussingault's experiments with roots. — Instigated by the 
terrible drought of 1840, Boussingault of France studied the value 
of roots and tubers in rations for horses on his farm at Bechel- 
bronn. ^ Eight horses, separated into two groups of four each, 
were used in the following experiments: The ordinary ration for 
work horses at his farm, which maintained them in excellent con- 
dition, was, per head per day, 22 pounds of hay, 5.5 pounds of 
straw, and 7.25 pounds of oats. This ration was fed in all the 
experiments with the changes noted. 

484. Steamed potatoes. — In the first experiment half the hay 
was replaced by lightly-steamed potatoes in the proportion of 280 
pounds of potatoes to 100 pounds of hay, the theoretical equiva- 
lent of potatoes in hay value. (138) The potatoes were mashed 
and mixed with cut straw and put into the manger when cold. 
The animals were weighed after having been on this feed a few 
days, and again after twenty-four days. The average weight per 
horse was: First weighing, 1,134.9 pounds; second weighing, 
1,111 pounds; average loss per horse during twenty-four days, 23.9 
pounds. The allowance of 30.8 pounds of steamed potatoes could 
not then, under the conditions, replace the 11 pounds of hay. 
The weather was very inclement during the experiment, and the 
teams were worked hard at ordinary fall farm work. (658) 

485. Potatoes substituted for hay. — This experiment, a dupli- 
cate of that just reported, was conducted under more favorable 
conditions for 63 days. The horses gained 10. 1 pounds each on 
an average during this time, 30.8 pounds of potatoes proving fully 
equal to 11 pounds of hay. Boussingault concludes that the ex- 
periment shows that the comparative value of hay and potatoes 
for horses is not far from 100 : 280. 

486. Hay and potatoes. — Eleven pounds of hay in the usual al- 
lowance were replaced by 30.8 pounds of potatoes, and the whole 
of the oats and straw by 15.4 pounds of hay, making the ration 

* Rural Economy, p. 400. 



Feeds for the Horse. 



307 



fed: Hay, 26.6 pounds; potatoes, 30.8 pounds. Boussingault re- 
fers to the experiment as follows:^ ''This was a ration which it 
was the more interesting to try, from the circumstances of Profes- 
Bor Liebig2 having come to the conclusion, from certain theoret- 
ical views, that it must be impossible to keep horses in health and 
strength upon hay and potatoes exclusively." The experiment 
was continued a fortnight with the following results: 





Group 
No. 1. 


Group 
No. 2. 


Both 
groups. 


Mean weight 
per hoi-se. 


First "weighing 


Lbs. 

4,620 
4,075 


Lbs. 

4,312 
4,097 


Lbs. 

8,932 
9,372 


Lbs. 
1,116 


Second weighing 


1,171 






Gain in fourteen days 


55 


385 


440 


55 







Undoubtedly a large part of the reported gain was from the in- 
creased weight of the contents of the alimentary tract, but it was 
apparent that the ration was sufficient to nourish the horses. (316, 
866, 897) 

487. Carrot. — The records show only a single trial with this 
root, by Boussingault, ^ reported as follows: " On one occasion at 
the stable of Bechelbronn, when the potato in one of our rations 
was replaced by an equal weight of carrots, the effect was highly 
disadvantageous, and even in following the theoretical equivalent 
of the carrot (350 pounds carrots equal 100 pounds of good 
meadow hay, calculated from chemical analysis), we had still no 
reason to be perfectly satisfied." The carrot is not utilized in 
this country by horsemen for furnishing nutriment, but rather for 
satisfying the craving of the horse for succulent feed and for 
variety. When given with that end in view its worth no doubt 
far exceeds that measured by the nutrients contained. (317) 

488. Artichoke. — This tuber is held by Boussingault * to be an 
excellent food for the horse. It is greedily eaten and horses 
thrive on it. In an experiment by this investigator, thirty pounds 
of sliced artichokes were substituted for half the hay in the ration. 



1 Loc. cit., p. 402. 

^ Agricultural Chemistry. 

3 Loc. cit. * Loc. cit. 



308 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Having become accustomed to this feed the horses were weighed^ 
and again when they had been on the feed for eleven days. The 
average weight per horse was: first weighing, 1,113 pounds; second 
weighing, 1,114 pounds, — a gain in eleven days of one pound per 
head. (323,868) 

489. Ruta-baga (Swede) turnip. — Boussingault fed 31 pounds 
of Swede turnips in place of part of the hay in the ration. The 
horses lost 52.8 pounds each in nine days, showing that the cal- 
culated ration was too low. In another experiment with the 
same hoi'ses where Swedes were introduced in the ratio of 400 : 100 
of hay, the horses kept their weight at the point to which it had 
fallen, but did not gain. 

II. Concerning Bations for Horses. 

490. Rations fed to Paris cab horses. — The experiments by 
Grandeau and Leclerc, the results of which are summarized 
in another place, (442-8) were made with horses belonging 
to the Paris Cab Company. The following table gives the daily 
standard rations of the horses used by the company at the time 
the experimental maintenance rations were fed, and the one 
finally adopted as best for work. These horses weighed from 800 
to 900 pounds each. The data, with description of the same, are 
taken from Lawes and Gilbert's essay on feeding farm animals. ^ 



Bations fed to horses of the Paris Cab Company — Lawes and Gilbert. 


Ration. 


Beans. 


Oats. 


Com. 


Corn 
cake. 


Hay. 


Straw. 


Total 
food. 


Total 

dry 

matter 


Previously used 

Maintenance, No. 1. 
Maintenance, No. 2. 
Finally adopted 


Lbs. 

1.5 
.9 
.8 

1.4 


Lbs. 

7.2 
4.3 
3.9 
6.5 


Lbs. 

5.3 
3.2 
2.9 

4.8 


Lbs. 

1.1 
.6 
.6 

1.0 


Lbs. 

3.9 
2.3 
2.1 
3.5 


Lbs. 

2.1 
1.3 
1.1 
1.8 


Lbs. 

21.1 
12.6 
11.4 
19.0 


Lbs. 

18.1 

10.9 

9.8 

16.3 



"It seems that the system of the establishment was to work the 
horses on alternate days, and to give less hay, straw and corn, but 
more oats and beans, though less total food, on the days of work. 
The figures in the top line, representing the ^ Previous ' ration, 

1 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1895, p. 140. 



Feeds for the Horse. 



309 



are in each case the mean of two days' rations. The ' Mainte- 
nance ration, No. 1,' was fixed at three-fifths of the 'Previous' 
ration; but, as the animals gained in weight, ' Maintenance 
ration, No. 2,' which was one-tenth less than No. 1, was subse- 
quently adopted. Even then the horses rather gained in weight. 
Finally, as it was considered that the standard or 'Previous' 
ration was too high, the ration for work, as given in the bottom 
line of the table, which is one and one-half times as much as 
'Maintenance ration. No. 1,' and about one-tenth less than the 
' Previous ' ration, was adopted. It is, however, said that 
under the new regime the horses were somewhat underfed, but 
whether the reduced ration is still maintained we are not aware. 
It will be observed that the proportion of beans fed was very 
small compared to that of cereals. Still, it will be seen presently 
that the proportion was very considerably higher than in the case 
of the omnibus horses of Paris." 

491. Rations fed to Paris omnibus horses. — The following table 
presents the average ration of the horses belonging to the Paris 
Omnibus Company for six years (1879-80 and 1884-87 inclusive). 
The figures are calculated from the results given in the annual 
reports of the general secretary of the company, and are furnished 
by Lawes and Gilbert in the paper mentioned, i The average 
number of horses belonging to the company was about 13,000, 
and their average weight was 1,240 pounds. 

Average rations fed to horses of the Paris Omnibus Company dur- 
ing six years — Lawes and Gilbert. 



Year. 


Beans. 


Oats. 


Corn, 


Hay. 


Straw. 


Bran, 
etc. 


Total 
food. 


Total dry 
matter. 


1879 


Lbs. 

1.4 

1.4 

1.4 

.9 

.1 


Lbs. 

10.1 
8.8 
8.7 
6.2 
5.5 
8.1 


Lbs. 

6.9 

8.3 

8.5 

11.3 

13.0 

10.8 


Lbs. 

9.1 

7.8 
8.5 
8.5 
8.6 
8.7 


Lbs. 

10.5 
11.1 

8.7 
8.4 
7.3 
8.2 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

37.8 
37.4 
36.7 
36.1 
35.0 
35.8 


Lbs. 
32 2 


1880 




31.8 


1884 


.9 
.8 
.5 


31.3 


1885 


30 8 


1886 


30 


1887 


30 5 











"It will be seen that the actual amount of dry matter supplied 
per head per day is nearly twice as much as in the case of the 
* Log. cit. 



310 Feeds and Feeding. 

cab horses previously given; tliat is, much more in proportion to 
a given live weight. It will be further seen that the proportion 
of beans to cereal grains is much less than in the case of the cab 
horses, and was reduced to a very small quantity in the later 
years. In fact, the grain given consisted almost exclusively of 
oats and corn, that of the oats being reduced but that of the corn 
in a greater degree increased, in later years, coincidently with 
the reduction in the amount of beans. On the occasion of a visit 
of one of us to the general secretary in 1887, it was suggested ta 
him that the supply of the highly nitrogenous leguminous seeds 
might be mainly, if not exclusively, reserved for old or over- 
worked horses; and he subsequently informed us that he had 
found their use in such cases advantageous." 



CHAPTER XIX. 

FEED AND CAKE OF THE HORSE. 

492. The range of feeding stuffs for horses. — At any point of 
observation we find the ration for the horse usually composed of 
only one or two kinds of grain and the same limited number of 
coarse dry fodders, the feeder insisting that these are practically 
all that can be given this animal with safety and economy. "VVe 
need not travel far, however, to find the list more or less changed, 
sometimes entirely so, yet with the same claim as to superiority 
or necessity as before. In the Northern states the almost uni- 
versal feeds for the horse are timothy hay and oats; in the South, 
Indian corn serves mainly for the concentrates, with dried corn 
leaves for roughage. On the Pacific coast, crushed barley is the 
common grain, while the hay comes from the wild oat, the barley 
or wheat plant. Passing to other couoitries, we find an interest- 
ing array of articles in the dietary of the horse, though still no 
large number is in use in any one locality. In Loudon ^ we 
read: "In some sterile countries, horses are forced to subsist on 
dried fish, and even vegetable mould; in Arabia, on milk, flesh 
balls, eggs, broth, etc. In Persia, barley is a common food for 
good horses. In some parts of India, salt, pepper and other spices 
are made up into balls, as big as billiard balls, with flour and 
butter, and thrust down the animal's throat. . . . Meat broth 
(especially sheep's head) is also given to horses. . . • In 
Bengal, a vetch, something like the tare, is used. On the western 
side of India, a sort of pigeon pea, called gram, is the usual food; 
with grass in the season, and hay all the year. Indian corn or 
rice is, I think, seldom if ever given to horses in India as ordinary 
food. In the West Indies they are fed on maize, Guinea corn, 
and sugar-cane tops; and, in some instances, on the sugar itself, in 

* Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, 1866: Article, Feeding of Horses. 



312 Feeds and Feeding. 

the form of molasses. In France, Spain and Italy, besides the 
grasses, the leaves of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, the seeds of 
the carob tree, etc., are nsed." 

493. Successful horse feeding a skilled art. — With each feeder 
using a limited variety of feeding stuffs one might at first suppose 
that the successful management of the horse, so far as feeding is 
concerned, is a simple matter, when in reality it is the very op- 
posite. Given two grooms with similar conditions as to horses 
to be cared for, work performed, and feed bins to draw from. In 
one case the team emerges from the stable with an action and 
style which at once announces it in the best of condition; in the 
other case, the lagging step, dull eye and rough coat advertise 
better than words the lack of judgment in feeding and manage- 
ment. In the second case the unsatisfactory condition of the ani- 
mals has not necessarily been brought about by any saving at the 
feed bin and hay mow; indeed, very frequently the poorer groom 
makes the more frequent request for supplies. The indescrib- 
able qualities which, rightly commingled, mark the good feeder 
cannot be acquired from lectures nor from books, but must, in a 
large measure, be born in the horseman. Study and observation 
will add to the ability of the feeder, but all that may be written 
will not make one an adept, nor cover his defects, if he does not 
take to the work naturally. No one can study the practices of 
successful horsemen without becoming strongly impressed with 
the fact that there are several ways of reaching the desired end of 
high finish and fine action with the horse. With the pig we can 
calculate about how much increase in weight is returned from a 
pound of corn. The horse is on a higher plane, and weight alone is 
not the only or even the main object in view; nerve and action are 
qualities which count for more than mere avoirdupois. The skill 
of the '^ artist " horse feeder enters into the very life of the creature 
lie manages along with the food he supplies. If the reader finds 
the coimsel given in regard to feed and management not entirely 
to his satisfaction, let him remember that we have chosen that 
course which seems on the wliole the most rational and generally 
applicable, conceding that good results may also be obtained by 
following other systems. 



Feed and Care of the Horse. 313 

494. The foal. — It is of the highest importance in horse rearing 
that the young start life in full health and vigor, and to this end 
the foal should very soon after birth take a good draught of the 
colostrum or first milk of the dam. Colostrum possesses purga- 
tive properties which tend to discharge from the alimentary tract 
the faecal matters collected therein during foetal life. If this 
result is not accomplished naturally, a gentle pui-gative of castor 
oil should be administered. With the bowels cleared, the foal 
is in condition to utilize the more natural milk of the dam whicli 
follows, gaining strength and increasing in weight from the start. 
There are several dangers to the life of the young foal which 
should be carefully guarded against. Some dams, more fre- 
quently those with their first foal and those hard worked, fail 
to supply the proper amount of nourishment, and the young lan- 
guish. In such cases the mare should be provided with food 
which will stimulate the milk flow; good pasture grass is of course 
the best, but if this is absent concentrates should be given in the 
shape of oats, rolled barley or wheat bran, with an equal weight 
of corn or corn and cob meal. Not infrequently the foal suffers 
from an over- supply of nourishment or because the milk is too 
rich, or from both combined, and the indigestion resulting may 
terminate in diarrhoea. In such cases the food allowance of the 
dam should be restricted and some of her milk drawn by the 
attendant, remembering always that the last milk carries the most 
fat, which substance is usually the disturbing element. 

After foaling, the mare should be confined for a few days, her 
feed being simple in character and not too abundant; with favora- 
ble conditions, at the end of a week she should be turned to pasture, 
with proper protection for herself and foal from the inclemencies 
of the weather. Under favorable conditions the dam and foal 
will shift for themselves, but watchfulness should never cease 
in noting tlirift and progress and checking the first appearance 
of ailment. Diarrhoea brought on by over-feeding or exposure 
to inclement weather is a common trouble and should be checked 
at once. Parched flour, rice- meal gruel and boiled milk are all 
excellent correctives for this ailment. Constipation, the other 
common evil, may be relieved by the use of castor oil and by 



314 Feeds and Feeding. 

injections of warm water to which soap has been added. In all 
cases of derangement, at once lessen the amount of food for both 
dam and foal, since nothing aids nature more at such times than 
to reduce the work of the digestive tract. 

495. Feeding the foal before weaning. — Horsemen who are 
-anxious to see the foals getting on, frequently induce them when 

quite young to take nourishment other than that supplied by the 
dam, the supplementary feeding often starting two months from 
birth. By placing the feed box from which the dam eats her grain 
a little raised from the ground, the foal will early begin nibbling 
from the mother's supply and soon acquire a taste for grain. 
This habit can be strengthened in no better way than that de- 
scribed by Splan, ^ which is as follows: "With the colts all out to 
grass and doing well, it is time to separate the oldest of them from 
the younger and commence feeding them grain, which is done in 
this way: Build a pen in some suitable place which is the most 
convenient, making it high enough so that the mare will not try 
to jump it, and have the space from the ground to the bottom rail 
or board sufficient to allow the foal to pass under. Put in a handy 
gate or bars, then an ample feed trough. Lead your mares and 
foals singly into this enclosure and let them eat together two or 
three times and they will soon learn where the food is. Take out 
the mares, shut up the gate, leave the colts in. Keep a good sup- 
ply of oats there, and you will find the foals there regularly run- 
ning in and out getting their rations. To induce the dam to 
loiter about this place, keep a large lump of rock salt near it and 
occasionally a mess of oats, and there is no further trouble. In 
this way, at weaning time, which is at the age of five months, the 
colts have learned to eat, and the result is that when they are 
taken away from their dams they do not miss them so much." 

496. The Palo Alto system. — The method employed on the 
Stanford farm in teaching foals to eat, studied by the writer in 
1892, carries with it also handling and breaking them to lead 
by the halter. At this farm each mare with foal is kept in 
a separate box-stall at night, while during the day two mares 
with foals occupy for a time the same paddock; the foals thus 

1 Life with the Trotters, p. 424. 



Feed and Care of ths Horse. 315 

thrown together become companions, their friendship being very 
marked, and proving beneficial at weaning time. In teaching 
them to eat, two men enter the paddock each with a pan in 
which are some dry crushed oats. Each foal wears a halter; over 
the back of the animal a quarter-inch rope, made into a large 
loop, is passed, this loop falling to the hock joints and passing 
up along each side of the body to the withers, whence a single 
cord passes through a ring in the halter so as to be held by the 
same hand that holds the leading strap. With rope and lead 
strap in one hand and a pan of crushed oats in the other, the 
attendant serves the foal with feed, gently inducing it to move 
forward, from time to time, by pulling on the halter and drawing 
on the rope at the same time; the loop tightening about the but- 
tocks impels the foal forward, preventing all tendency to pull at the 
halter and teaching the young thing that when the groom tightens 
on the lead strap it is to move ahead. The handling of two 
foals at the same time when companions, and while still with 
their dams, makes each more fearless and less restive than if alone. 
In a short time the foal is halter-broken, and can be led about the 
paddock without grain being held before it. 

497. Weaning the foal. — The foal is weaned when five or six 
months old. The operation calls for good judgment and careful 
attention, but is not difficult if the preliminaries have been 
properly carried out. Having given Splan's method of teaching 
the foal to eat grain, we will follow him through the period of 
weaning. 1 ''Now we put on the halters and keep them on, 
leading the foals more or less while weaning them. Leave them 
in their boxes, two or three together, several days, and have the 
boxes open into a nice grass paddock. Let them run out and in, 
give them oats mixed with bran and sorghum cut up fine, and in 
a few days more turn them out in the fields away from their dams, 
where there is plenty of grass and water, and a large trough with 
feed in it constantly. They have been in the habit of taking 
milk a great many times a day, and they need food just as often. 
The best way is to keep plenty of mixed food for them, using 
cracked corn and oats, also unthiashed oats run through a cutting- 

* Loc. cit., pp. 424-5. 



316 Feeds and Feeding. 

box, then mixed witli bran and water enough to moisten it to 
make the bran adhere to the oats." 

At Palo Alto foals were weaned at five months of age; in this 
case the pair which had run together and become acquainted 
were put in a darkened stall in the evening, the dam being 
placed out of hearing. They were not allowed to suck after 
the first separation. The box-stalls were without projections of 
any kind, so that it was impossible for the foals to injure them- 
selves, though they often reared against the sides of the stall or 
struck at the door in struggling to escape. The companionship 
of the pair, and the fact that they had been taught to eat dry 
food, helped them to sooner forget their dams. 

498. Feeding the colt after weaning. — Colts are nondescripts, 
for the rearing of which no definite rules can be given, but com- 
mon sense, patience and alertness should prevail. These awk- 
ward animals, utterly useless as yet, must nevertheless be care- 
fully looked after, the aim being to supply food liberally, with 
plenty of sunlight and an abundance of exercise. Oats lead in the 
list of feeding stuffs, but shorts and bran with barley, peas and 
feome corn may be profitably used where economy is important. 
These feeds, aside from corn, are rich in bone-making material 
and will be found satisfactory as well as economical. Colts suf- 
fer at times from teething, and to subsist wholly upon hard, dry 
food may work injury. Steamed crushed oats or barley, thick- 
ened with bran, will prove appetizing and very nourishing in 
such cases. Boots may be cooked and the mass extended with 
ground grain and bran. A limited quantity of this feed given at 
night in winter-time, daily, or two or three times a week, will 
show its effect in a better colt and a more thrifty general appear- 
ance. Withholding coarse provender and giving concentrated 
grain in large quantities in its place at this period is to be dep- 
recated, for it is important that the digestive tract be developed 
to a moderate extent by distention with coarse feed that it may 
serve its purpose when the animal is grown. The '^big belly" 
which a properly-fed colt may carry at this period is nothing to 
its harm, even though it annoy the short-sighted stockman who 
foolishly may wish to see in his growing colt the trim form of the 
finished product. 



Feed and Care of the Horse. 317 

A fair allowance of grain for the colt, measured in oats, is 83 

follows: 

Up to one year of age, from 2 to 3 pounds. 
From one to two years of age, 4 to 5 pounds. 
From two to three years of age, 7 to 8 pounds. 

While an ample allowance of such roughage as hay, straw 
and stov^er should be supplied, it should always be less than the 
animal would eat had it free access to this provender. The 
colt, like the mature horse, should not be allowed all the rough- 
age it can consume, for such over-supply tends to gorge tlie 
digestive tract with inert matter, and may work lasting injury. 

Liberal feeding must be counterbalanced by an abundance of 
outdoor exercise. In no other way can colts be ruined so surely 
and so permanently as by liberal feeding and close confinement. 
Each day from three to ten hours should be spent in the open air^ 
according to the condition of the weather and other circumstances. 

499. Rearing by hand. — It occasionally happens that the foal 
must be reared artificially or perish. If the young thing haa 
never received any of its mother's milk, the bowels should first 
of all be moved by a dose of castor oil. Cow's milk, to which at 
least one-fourth its volume of water, together with some sugar, 
has been added, (429) makes a fair substitute for mare's milk 
and should be given at blood temperature. Gruels may be made 
by boiling beans or peas and removing the skins by passing the 
pulp through a sieve. Oil meal made into a jelly by boiling, and 
shorts prepared in the same way, are excellent for the motherless 
foal. 

500. Cow's milk for foal feeding. — Cow's milk is often used with 
advantage in feeding foals. Foals suffering from distemper can- 
not always take solid food satisfactorily and may be nurtured on 
cow's milk. The foal may be taught to drink milk by pouring it 
upon the grain feed; the young thing eats the moistened feed, 
and by tipping the pan it soon learns to drink the separated milk. 

At the Iowa Station, ^ Wilson and Curtiss fed whole milk, and 
later separator skim milk, with satisfactory results, to imported 
Percheron, Shire and French Coach weanling fillies shortly after 

1 Bui. 18. 



318 Feeds and Feeding. 

their arrival and while out of condition. In changing from whole 
milk to separator skim milk, it was necessary to reduce the 
amount of milk fed for a day or two to prevent scouring. Ten 
pounds of separator skim milk was found to effect a saving of one 
pound of grain. ^ Grattan reports favorably on the use of skim milk 
for foals. Even when fed sour or lobbered, satisfactory results were 
obtained after they were accustomed to it. MacNeilage objects 
to the use of cow's milk for foals, claiming '^no better means of 
manufacturing wind-suckers was ever devised, and it is rare that 
yearlings so brought out count for much as two-year-olds and 
three-year-olds." 2 This adverse criticism is a timely warning 
against the too free use of milk in foal feeding. While we may 
give a large amount of milk to a pig, forcing its growth to the 
utmost, we should remember that this animal is designed for the 
pork barrel, while the growing colt is intended for quite a differ- 
ent purpose. Milk carries a large amount of bone and muscle- 
building material and is very palatable. In judicious hands its 
use is commended. (356-7) 

501. Feed and care of the stallion. — The following from San- 
ders ^ is replete with good counsel in relation to the stallion: 
" The food should mainly be good, sound oats — nothing is better; 
but this should be varied by an occasional ration of corn or barley ; 
for horses, like men, are fond of a variety in their food, and an 
occasional change of diet is conducive to health. Wheat bran is 
an invaluable adjunct to the grain ration, and can never be dis- 
pensed with. It is the cheapest, safest and best of all regulators 
for the bowels, and it is especially rich in some of the most im- 
portant elements of nutrition. No specific directions as to the 
quantity of food can be given. Some horses will require nearly 
twice as much as others; and the quantity that may be safely 
given will depend somewhat upon the amount of exercise in any 
given case. Some horsemen recommend feeding three and others 
four times a day; but in either case no more should be given 
than will be promptly eaten up clean. If any food should be left 
in the box it should be at once removed and the quantity at the 

1 Breeder's Gazette, Vol. VI, 1884, p. 796. 

2 Trans. Highl. and Agrl. Soc, 1890, p. 152. 
^ "Plorse Breeding," pp. 144-46. 



Feed and Care of the Horse. 319 

next time of feeding slionld be reduced accordingly. As a rule, 
it will be safe to/eed as much as the horse will eat with aj^parent 
relish; and then, with plenty of exercise, he will not become 
overloaded with fat. The hay, as well as the grain feed, should 
be sound and free from mould and dust, and the stall should be 
kept clean, well lighted and perfectly ventilated. 

''The amount of exercise to be given will vary somewhat with 
XhQ condition and habit of the horse. If he be in thin flesh, and 
it is thought best to fatten him up, the exercise should be lighter 
than it otherwise would be; and, on the other hand, if there is a 
tendency to become too fat, this may be corrected by increasing the 
amount of exercise that is given. Draft horses should rarely be led 
or driven faster than a walk in taking their exercise, and they wUl 
require much less of it than the roadster or the running horse — 
a moderate 'jog' daily will benefit them. I am clearly of the 
opinion that in no one particular is there more faulty manage- 
ment on the part of lazy grooms and stable hands than in the 
matter of exercising stallions while doing service in the stud. 
They should not be walked nor jogged so long that they will be- 
come jaded or wearied, but should have enough of it daily to keep 
the muscles hard and firm, the appetite good and to prevent them 
from laying on an undue amount of fat. No draft horse, under 
ordinary circumstances, should have less exercise than five miles 
a day, and the roadster and running horse may safely have six 
miles, which in some cases should be increased to eight or even 
ten. 

"The point to be aimed at in the stable management of the 
stallion is so to feed, groom and exercise as to keep the horse to 
the very highest possible pitch of strength and vigor. The idea 
which prevails among many stable grooms that feeding this or 
that nostrum will increase the ability of a horse to get foals is 
sheer nonsense. Anything that adds to the health, strength and 
vigor of the horse will increase his virility or sexual power, 
simply because the sexual organs will partake of the general tone 
of the system; and, on the contrary, whatever tends to impair the 
health and vigor of the general system will have a deleterious 
effect upon the sexual organs. A healthy horse needs nothing 



320 Feeds and Feeding. 

but good food, pure air, plenty of exercise, with due attention to 
cleanliness and regularity in feeding and watering; and when all 
these things are attended to properly the drugs and nostrums that 
stable lore prescribes as ^ good for a horse ' would be better thrown 
to the dogs." 

502. Food for the mare. — While in foal the mare does not 
necessarily require food different in quality from that fed at other 
times, but the quantity should be somewhat larger, all conditions 
being equal. Those used for breeding pm-poses only will do well 
without grain when on nutritious pasture, but if the grass is in- 
sufficient, some additional feed in the shape of grain should be 
given. Working mares are more sure of bringing good foals 
than those idle in pasture, provided judgment is used in handling 
and feeding. They should be worked with regularity, the labor 
never being severe or taxing, nor should the nature of the work 
ever be such as to make long intervals between feeds, for then 
great hunger may be followed by surfeiting. Idleness is the bane 
of horse rearing and should be avoided whenever possible. To 
place the mare in a box-stall and confine her there without suit- 
able exercise, while supplied an abundance of feed, is to adopt a 
practice only too common and one carrying large risk. Abun- 
dance of exercise must always go with liberal feeding. 

As to the kind of feed for the mare in foal, oats lead, yet shorts 
and bran may be fed with economy and beneficial results; mashes 
can be given occasionally, and where possible cooked feed may be 
supplied at night, three times a week. Through the use of proper 
foods the bowels will be kept in a natural condition, and should 
be a little loose rather than otherwise at time of parturition. 

503. Feeding the trotter. — The single requisite of speed makes 
the carrying of every pound of useless body weight, and more 
especially of feed, a serious matter in the management of the trot- 
ting horse. More important than this, even, is the effect of the 
food upon the character of tlie muscles formed from it, and espe- 
cially upon the nerve and mettle of the horse. For help in this 
line we can draw from no better source than Hiram Woodruff, ^ 
who tells how the trotter should be fed and managed. 



1 The Trotting Horse of America, pp. 90-105. 



Feed and Care of the Horse. 321 

When going into winter quarters, the feed of the trotter should 
be reduced fully one-half in order to prevent fattening, for toa 
much fat on the intestines and about the heart makes the trainer 
no end of trouble in working it off. A few carrots may be given 
and a bran mash occasionally, with good clean, sweet hay. Horses 
whose legs must undergo blistering or firing should have feed of 
a cooling nature, mashes and carrots being in more abundance, 
with less oats, in order to reduce the tendency to feverish, inflam- 
matory symptoms. Care must be taken not to permit the animal 
to get flal:)by or washy by too much soft food while undergo- 
ing treatment. Horses turned out to the field should be fed oats 
twice a day, for the exposure to the severity of the weather in- 
creases the need of heat-giving food. In the spring when shed- 
ding, bran mashes are in order to keep the bowels open. Flax 
seed and linseed meal should not be given, for they have a tend- 
ency to relax the system too suddenly and to cause the old hair 
to come away before the new coat is well started. 

''With the beginning of the season (we quote directly from 
the author),! while the jogging, the first part of the trotting 
horse's preparation, is in progress, the strength of the feed may 
be increased, though not up to the extent that will be requisite 
when the work is made longer and sharper. He may have, dur- 
ing this first part of the preparation, from eight to ten quarts of 
oats a day, according to his capacity as a feeder, and the demands 
made by nature for suiDply of strong food under work. As the 
oats are increased, the horse will want less hay, but may still 
have all he will eat up clean. After taking his feed of oats, he 
will not consume as much hay in general; but some horses are 
such gluttons that it is necessary to limit them as to hay almost 
from the first. There are even some who will eat the straw of 
their bedding when they have had all the grain and hay that 
should be fed to them; and, with these, it sometimes becomes 
necessary to put on the nuizzle long before the time for the trial 
or the race. No carrots are now to be given, and I believe corn 
to be unnecessary and often mischievous. It is heating, and does 
not contain as much of the stuff that goes to make up hard flesh 

1 Loc. cit., p. 99. 
21 



322 Feeds and Feeding. 

and elastic muscle as oats. There may be instances, however, in 
which a light feeder can be got to eat up his oats, and a handful 
of corn as well, when the latter is mixed with them. In such a 
case it is well to give it; but in no case should corn be used as a 
substitute for the allowance of oats the horse in training ought to 
have. 

" While the jogging and after prej^aration are going on, a bran- 
mash now and then will be proper. Probably about once a week 
will be often enough and not too often; but this will be indicated 
by the condition of the horse's bowels and by his constitutional 
tendencies and requirements. If his bowels are relaxed, the use 
of the bran-mash is not apparent; and if he is of the light, washy 
order, never having much substance, and easily melting away 
when put into sharp training work, mashes are to be given 
more sparingly than with one of the opposite character. The 
trainer is never to relax his vigilance of observation, or let his 
judgment go to sleep and trust to arbitrary rules. . . . Dur- 
ing the f;ist work, preparatory to the coming trial, the horse will 
have been put \xpon his largest allowance of strong food. Some 
will not eat more than eight or ten quarts of oats a day; and it is 
necessary to be very vigilant and careful that these light feeders 
are not over-marked in work. Twelve or thirteen quarts is about 
what a good feeder ought to have. Some will eat sixteen quarts 
of oats a day, but my belief is that three quarts of it does more 
harm than good." 

Splan tells us^ that Earns, in the hottest part of the summer, 
consumed fifteen pounds of oats per day, which he regarded as the 
maximum for a strong, energetic horse. 

All horsemen agree in regarding oats as the one grain suit- 
able for animals where speed is sought regardless of cost of food. 
While this opinion prevails in this country, we should remem- 
ber that the Arab horse usually subsists upon barley. 

504. Feeding the carriage horse. — Style and action should be 
prerequisites with the carriage horse, economy in feeding stand- 
ing second. Oats easily lead among concentrates, for any good 
driver will tell us that a horse fed on oats exhibits mettle as from 
no other feed. For variety, rolled wheat or barley with bran 

1 Life with the Trotters, p. 302. 



Feed and Care of the Horse. 323 

may form a portion of the ration. From ten to twelve pounds of 
oats, or their equivalent, should suffice for the concentrates, 
divided into three feeds, the evening meal being the largest. 
Coolved grain, having a tendency to soften the flesh, should not 
generally be given, though a feed once or twice a week will have 
a cooling effect; bran mashes will be conducive to the same end. 
A part of the hay may be chaffed and moistened before feeding; 
tiie remainder may be fed long, as the carriage horse has plenty 
of time for masticating his food. From ten to twelve pounds ot 
hay should be allowed in order to bring the total weight of the 
ration within the limit of twenty or twenty-two pounds. 

While the large abdomen cannot be tolerated in the carriage 
horse, we should not forget that there must be a certain bulk or 
volume to the feed in order that the digestive functions may be 
properly maintained. Carriage horses are usually over-fed and 
under or irregularly exercised, the latter trouble arising from the 
absence or business engagements of the owner or because of inclem- 
ent weather. For these reasons mainly, the period of satisfac- 
tory service with this class of animals is usually short. Where 
daily driving cannot be practiced, under-feeding rather than heavy 
feeding should prevail as the safer course. When the team is 
not taken from the stable during the day, the concentrates or 
grain portion of the ration should at once be reduced one-third 
or one-half, and the normal allowance should not again be given 
until work or exercise demands it. Such action requires firmness 
on the part of the feeder who wishes io treat his animals with 
kindness, but any other system than that of accurately gauging 
feed to work is harmful and ultimately disastrous. 

505. Feeding the work horse.— The work horse, having but few 
days of idleness, possesses a hearty appetite and a vigorous diges- 
tion, so that if intelligently cared for, his lot is not altogether an 
unhappy one; nor is he to be commiserated when compared with 
his aristocratic kin, the carriage horse, which by high living and 
periods of enforced idleness, followed occasionally perhaps by 
hours of over-exertion, generally has but a brief career and that 
sometimes attended vrith many ills. Regularity in work brint^s 
regularity of feeding, and these greatly conduce to comfort and 
long years of usefulness. 



324 Feeds and Feeding. 

The concentrates for work horses can rarely consist wholly of 
oats because of their cost. Eolled wheat and barley are excellent 
substitutes, and corn meal, or preferably corn and cob meal, may 
form from one-third to one-half of the ration. Bran has come into 
general use as part feed for the horse. Shorts or middlings may 
be used to the extent of two or three pounds per day. This por- 
tion of the wheat grain is excellent for the horse, except that the 
heavy or floury middlings, if fed in quantity, are liable to induc'e 
colic with many horses. Cooked feed may be given two or three 
times a week for cooling the system; in its absence, bran mashes 
should be given. A small allowance of roots is always in 
order. 

The work horse should be supplied with about two pounds of 
provender daily for each hundred pounds of weight. Of this, 
from ten to eighteen pounds, according to the severity of the labor 
performed, should be grain in some form. The heavy feeding 
should come at night, after the long day's work is over and when 
the animal has time for masticating and digesting his food. After 
watering comes the administration of the grain, which should 
constitute one-half to two-thirds of the day's allowance. This 
may be fed separately, or preferably upon moistened, chaffed hay. 
The amount of chaffed hay with which the grain is mixed should 
not exceed one peck in volume. 

Ground grain and chaffed hay are fed in mixed form that the 
animal may masticate his food and pass it to the stomach more 
quickly than is possible with the material whole and in dry form. 
A fair allowance of long hay should always be thrown into the 
manger for the animal to finish on, after the stomach is replen- 
ished and while he is resting but still requiring more food. The 
morning meal should be comparatively light, consisting mostly of 
grain with some chaffed hay. It should not possess much bulk, 
and should be in condition to be easily and rapidly consumed so 
as to be well out of the way when the animal is led from the 
stable. The mid-day meal is omitted in many stables, but most 
horsemen hold that some grain should be given at noon, which 
claim seems reasonable from our knowledge of the horse's stomach 
and the digestive process. In any case the amount of feed given 
at mid- day should not be large. 



Feed and Care of the Horse. 325 

506. Preparation of feed. — The food requirements of tlie horse 
vary more than for any other farm animal because of their wide 
range in weight and the great diversity and severity of the labor 
Ijerformed. Idle horses may be maintained wholly or almost 
wholly upon hay, straw or corn fodder, fed uncut. Such animals 
have ample time for masticating food, and their systems not being 
taxed by labor, they are able to subsist on food which contains a 
large percentage of inert matter. Forage possessing considerable 
volume, as hay and straw, is suitable for such animals because a 
reasonable amount will furnish the necessary nutriment, and it is 
better to have the digestive tract well distended with food sub- 
stances than contracted, as would be the case if concentrates pos- 
sessing only the requisite nutriment were supplied. 

For horses taxed to the limit of their endurance all grain 
should be ground and fed upon moistened, chaffed hay. Food 
thus prepared is more rapidly masticated and consequently re- 
mains a longer time in the stomach. A little long hay may be 
supplied the animal, to be consumed at leisure after the stomach is 
well filled. Understanding the requirements of animals repre- 
senting the two extremes, one can adjust the food preparation and 
supply to meet the various intermediate cases as they arise. 

There is always more or less dust with hay, and this rough- 
age should always be administered in such manner as to cause 
the horse the least annoyance. Dusty hay should be avoided if 
possible. Sprinkling the hay lightly with water is the simplest 
way of reducing the trouble to the minimum. 

507. The order of administering grain, hay and water. — Colin's 
investigations on the stomach of the horse ^ show that this organ 
must fill and empty itself two or three times for each feed given. 
(34) In one case he administered 2,500 grams (5.5 pounds) of 
hay to a horse, which was then killed, and on opening the stomach 
less than one-half of the hay was found therein, the remainder 
having passed into the intestines. Other animals killed at longer 
intervals after feeding showed that the passage of the food into the 
intestines was not as rapid toward the end of the repast as at the 
beginning. From this it appears there are two periods in the di- 

1 Traite d. Phys. Comp, des Animaux. 



326 Feeds and Feeding. 

gestion of hay; in the first, the material is pushed on, almost as 
soon as it enters the stomach, into the intestines by the food which 
follows, while toward the end of the meal the passage is slow and 
the digestion in the stomach more perfect. 

Marlot, conducting experiments at the Agricultural College, 
Department of Yonne, France, fed four quarts of oats to a horse 
which was killed soon after. An examination of the stomach 
showed that three quarts of the oats had been carried by the 
water into the intestines. The grain of the ration being rich in 
protein should remain in the stomach as long as possible for the 
digestion of this nutrient. 

Sanborn, studying the effects of watering before and after feed- 
ing, concludes as follows:^ 

"1. Horses watered before feeding grain retained their weight 
better than when watered after feeding grain. 2. Horses watered 
before feeding had the better appetite or ate the most. 3. Horses 
watered after feeding grain, in ratio to the food eaten, seemed to 
digest it as well as those watered before feeding. In a prior trial 
there was a small apparent advantage in favor of feeding after 
watering, on digestion. 4. It seems advisable to water both be- 
fore and after feeding." 

In some cases cruelty is certainly practiced towards horses in 
withholding a normal water supply. Splan^ writes: ''As to 
water I think every horse should have all he wants at all times. 
A man says: Why, will you give your horse water before a race ? 
Yes, before the race, in the race and after the race, and any other 
time the horse wants to drink. . . . When I said give your 
horse all the water he wants before the race, I do not mean that 
you shall tie him up where he cannot get a drink for five or six 
hours on a hot day in a warm stall, and then take him to the pump 
and give him all he wants. What I mean is to give him water 
often, and in that way he will take but a small quantity at a 
time." 

In general we may say that horses should have their regular 
and largest supply of water previous to feeding, and it may also 



1 Bui. 9, Utah Expt. Sta. 

» Life with the Trotters, pp. 302-3. 



Feed and Care of the Horse. 327 

be well to supply a limited quantity after feeding. When the 
horses come to the stable heated and fatigued, a little fresh water, 
even if cold, may be given with beneficial effect — say eight or ten 
quarts. Then when cooled off and rested, what they still re- 
quire shovdd be sui)plied. When on the road a few quarts of 
water can be given with safety, no matter how much the horse is 
heated, but a large quantity should never be supplied at one time. 
On journeys, water should be given every few miles. 

A theoretical system of feeding would require that the horse 
be given water first of all, and that this be followed by hay, the 
grain being withheld until at least some hay had been consumed. 
While the i^lan of watering first is easily followed, we cannot and 
should not make the horse wait for the grain, consuming his hay 
allowance first, for until the grain is given he is nervous and 
unsatisfied. In practice the concentrates will usually be supplied 
before hay is given. A middle ground can be taken by watering 
first and then feeding ground grain sprinkled upon a small allow- 
ance of moistened chaffed hay. This will satisfy the desire of 
the horse by supplying the most palatable portion of his food 
early, and yet insure the retention of the grain in the stomach for 
a considerable period, since masticating and swallowing the cut 
hay with accompanying meal will require some time. 

The small size of the stomach of the horse indicates the impro- 
priety of long fasting. While it is a fact that horses employed 
by some establishments go from daylight until dark without food, 
it seems that where possible these fasts should be broken by a 
small feed of grain at mid-day. 

Over-feeding with hay is the source of a long list of ills with 
the horse. Through carelessness or mistaken kindness the mangers 
are often kept filled with hay, and because of his long hours of 
idleness in the stable the horse falls into the habit of gorging 
himself with this provender. Not only is there waste of hay in 
such cases, but whatever is eaten beyond requirement exhausts 
the digestive system and weakens its influence upon the other 
nutrients of the ration. Staring coats, labored breathing and 
quick tiring are the least serious, though probably the most 
easily noticeable, results of this common practice. There should 



328 Feeds and Feeding. 

be a definite allowance of hay for the horse at each feeding time, 
and this should always fall short of what would be consumed if 
more were given. Next to failure to provide abundant and sys- 
tematic exercise the common fault in horse management, where 
animals are used for pleasure, is that of overfeeding with hay. 

508. Systematic feeding of the highest importance. — No one 
can review the literature of horse feeding or personally study the 
practices in various stables located at widely separated points, as 
the writer has done, without realizing that there are many suc- 
cessful ways of feeding and managing the horse. The uses to 
which this animal is put are so varied, and the feeding materials 
at command so diverse for different localities, that any hard-and- 
fast rules as to kind of feed and amount to be supplied are out 
of the question. One thing is certain, however: Whatever feed- 
ing stuffs are employed and whatever order of feeding is adopted, 
regularity and uniformity should prevail at all times. The ani- 
mal during his round of work anticipates the feeding hour. The 
digestive system, and indeed the whole organism of the body, 
becomes accustomed to this certain order, and thrift and health 
are the natural concomitants, while irregularity and uncertainty 
are always productive of unsatisfactory results. 

509. Variety in feed of importance. — Horsemen sometimes state 
that with plenty of oats and good hay at command they care noth- 
ing for other food articles. While it is true that a horse can be 
maintained on this short dietary, it seems reasonable that equally 
good or better results are obtainable, and the cost of keeping often 
lessened, by adopting a more extended bill of fare. Experiments 
with other domestic animals plainly show the advantages of judi- 
ciously formed combinations of feeding stuffs over any single one. 
If energy and spirited action were the only qualities desirable in 
the horse, then perhaps oats with hay might suffice; but when we 
consider the number and complexity of the components of bone, 
tissue and nerve, we can well believe that these are better nour- 
ished by several kinds of grain and forage plants than by one or 
two only. 

A striking illustration of the value of variety in food and its 
proper administration is shown by Mr. Charles Hunting, a 



Feed and Care of the Horse. 329 

superintendent having under his care some 7,000 horses em- 
ployed in the collieries of North England, who writes as follows: ^ 
''I was called to a colliery in Durham some time ago; the out- 
put at this place was decreased from fifteen to twenty score per 
day through the horses being unable, from want of condition, to 
get the work out. The animals were miserably poor, though 
allowed 168 pounds of oats and 154 pounds of hay each per 
week. The oats were not crushed and the hay was not chopped. 
The horses were large, none under 16 hands, many 16.2. They 
worked very long hours, and took heavy loads, but I confess I 
was astonished at their appearance after many months of such 
apparently liberal feeding. On September 1 their food was 
changed to the following: 

Crushed peas 35 lbs. at 34s. per qr. 2s. 4d. 

Crushed barley 20 lbs. at 28s. per qr. Is. 3d. 

Crushed oats 40. lbs. at 28s. per qr. 3s. 4d. 

Bran 14 lbs. at 7Jd. per st. Gs.Tod. 

Hay 7sts. atOd. 5s. 3d. 

Total 12s. 9^d. 

'' The old plan gave us: 

Oats 168 lbs. at 28s. per qr. 14s. Od. 

Hay 11 sts. at 9d. per St. 8s. 3d. 

Total £1 2s. 3d. 

Difference: 9s. 5Jd. per horse per week. 

''Notice, too, that besides this saving in money, the digestive 

organs had 56 pounds less hay and 59 pounds less corn (grain) to 

digest. Or: — 

Mixed grain 109 lbs. Old oats 1681bs. 

Hay 981bs. Hay 1541bs. 

Total 2071bs. Total 322 lbs. 

''Result: Within three months this stud was in excellent 
health and condition, drawing out of the pit, without any appli- 
cation of engine power, about twenty to thirty scores more per 
day than when I first saw them. There were 149 horses on the 
colliery, so by this change a saving of £3, 662 12s. 1 Jd. per annum 
was effected." 



' Paper read before New Castle Farmers' Club by Mr. Chas. Hunting, 
South Hetton, County of Durham, England; see The English Cart 
Horse Stud Book, Vol. I, p. xlv. 



330 Feeds and Feeding. 

510. The supervision of feeding. — In stables where mauy horses 

are maintained, a group or row of animals should remain in the 

I* 
care of the same attendant, the whole establishment being under 

the watchful supervision of the superintendent. While we can 
estimate quite closely the amount of food to be given a hundred 
or a thousand horses, there must always be modifications and con- 
cessions to individual members of the establishment to be recog- 
nized and provided for by the guiding mind,— one horse should 
have a little more than the regulation allowance, and the next 
possibly a little less, the object being to keep each in the desired 
condition. Usually it is not well to leave the feeding of horses 
to their own driver, for he has his likes and dislikes, and the 
favorites are pretty certain to receive more than their proper 
allowance of grain, while the others suffer. A watchful superin- 
tendent must ever be on the alert to see that each animal secures 
the needed provender. 

511. Exercise essential to the maintenance of health. — The 
Arabs have a saying, '' Rest and fat are the greatest enemies of 
the horse. ' ' The horse is par excellence the creature of motion, 
and in its feeding and management we should hold this point 
ever in view. The prudent horseman will bear in mind that cor- 
relative with liberal feeding there must be hearty exercise or 
severe labor, and that these conditions may be happily balanced. 
As soon as hard labor ceases, or constant and vigorous exercise is 
over, it will be found absolutely necessary to reduce the allow- 
ance of food if the proi)er balance is to be maintained. The idle 
horse should be limited to less than half the grain given while on 
regular duty, and in some instances it were better to give none, 
provided the roughage sujiplied be of good quality. 

A colt fed heavily on suitable nutrients will grow rapidly 
and develop good bone and strong muscle, provided at all times 
thei'e be a proper balance between exercise and feed. The 
highly-fed colt should be out of doors from eight to ten hours a 
day, and should move several miles each day either in the field, 
on the track, or both. A mature liorse should be in the open air 
not less than four or five hours a day and should travel fi-om ten 
to fifteen miles daily to maintain health. 



Feed and Care of the Rorse. 331 

512. Rations. — The following rations given by various author- 
ities may serve as a general guide in determining the amount of 
feed which should be allowed the horse under diverse conditions: 

Character of animal and \ 



work required. Concentrates. Roughage. 

Trotting horse. — Hiram Woodruff. ^ 

Colt, weaning time 2 pounds oats. Hay ctcZ Zi6. 

Colt, one year old 4 pounds oats. Hay ad lib, 

Colt, two years old 6 pounds oats. Hay ad lib. 

Colt, two yeai-s old, in training. ... 8 pounds oats. | "^^"^ii^^S^^^** 
Colt, three years old, in training... 8-12 pounds oats. { ^^^ii^lted.^^^ 

Trotting horse. — Splan.' 
Horse on circuit 10 pounds oats. | aniount^ 

Horse on circuit 15 pounds oats, 

in exceptional Hay, fair 

cases (as with Rarus). amount. 

Horse variously used. — Stonehenge.^ 

Race horse 15 pounds oats. 6-8 pounds hay. 

Hack. 8 pounds oats. 12 pounds hay» 

Horse variously used. — Fleming.* 

Po-y- 4 pounds oat. {^SCfn^'' 

Hunter, small 12 pounds oats. 12 pounds hay. 

Hunter, large 16 pounds oats. 10 pounds hay. 

Carriage, Ught work 10 pounds oats. 12 pounds hay. 

The draft horse. — Sidney.^ 

Heavy, hard work ( 'I PSll^ Sis. { '\^-C?£»«: 

( 3 pounds corn. '• e^ ^^"vei u..> . 

Farm horse. — Settegast. ^ 

I^ig^t^-^ 6-10 pounds oats. {^"^S^lSJ: 

' Medium work 10 pounds oats. { ^^prndttS^: 

H^^^y^<^^^ 13 pounds oats. { '| PoZdl'stm^-; 

* The Trotting Horse of America. * Life Avith the Trottei-s. 

3 The Horse. •• The Practical Horse Keeper. ^ Book of the Horse. 

« Thierzucht, II, 1888, p. 109. 



332 



Feeds and Feeding. 



513. Rations for army horses. — The following axe the rations 
allowed army horses in the countries noted: 

Ration. 



Government. Weight of horse. Concentrates. Roughage. 

United States/ cavalry, 950 to 1,150 lbs. 12 lbs. oats, ") 

corn or \ 14 lbs. hay. 
barley. J 

United States, artillery, 1,050 to 1,200 lbs. 12 lbs. oats, \ 

corn or v 14 lbs. hay. 
barley. j 

Germany.^ cavalry 1,050 lbs. 10 lbs. oats.* { f'flbsiSw. 

Germany, cavalry-officers' 11 lbs. oats, -f Y'yJbs'^traw 

Great Britain,^ cavalry 10 lbs. oats. \^\ J^^* ^^g"^ 

f l'^ lbs hav 
Great Britain, cavalry, severe duty 12-14 lbs. oats. \ t lu'* gfj-aL. 

* Wolff (Article 441) refers to the German cavalry ration as containing 
11 pounds of oats. 

514. Rations used bystreet-car companies. — The rations used 
by street- car companies are interesting not only because they show 
the feed required by animals thus worked, but, because of the 
constant and severe labor performed by this class of animals, 
we can learn of the food requirements of hard- worked horses. 
The following rations are given by Fleming* as the daily allow- 
ance for horses of some of the principal tramway (horse-car) com- 
panies of Great Britain: 

Bations for British tramway (street-car) horses — Fleming. 



London. 


Liverpool. 


Glasgow. 


Edinburgh. 


Dublin. 


Lbs. 

Corn... 7 
Oats ... 3 
Peas... 3 
Hay ... 12 
Straw.. 1 


Lbs. 

Corn 12 

Beans 4 

('ut hay ... 14 
Bran 1 


Lbs. 

Oats ... 6 
Corn... 11 
Hay... 8.5 
Straw.. 1 
Bran... .5 


Lbs. 

Oats 8 

Corn 4 

Beans 4 

Hay 14 

Marshlum. 2 


Lbs. 

Com... 14 
Oats... 3 
Hay... 12 
Bran .. .5 



Special Agent Mattes, of the Department of Agriculture, has 



1 From information furnished by Chas. Bird, Quartermaster General 
U. S. Army, Wasliinjijton. 

2 Landw. Jahrb., 1887, Suppl. Ill, p. 72. 

8 Fleming, The Practical Hoi-se Keeper, p. 89. < Loo. cit., p. 88. 



Feed and Care of the Horse. 



333 



gathered important information ^ concerning the rations of street- 
car horses on the Continent, some of which are herewith pre- 
sented: 

Rations for street-car horses in various European cities — Mattes. 





Daily allowance per 


borse. 


Nutrients 


in ration. 


City. 


Corn. 


Oats. 


Hay, 


Straw. 


Prot. 


Carbh. 


Fat. 


Nut. 
ratio. 


Bremen 


Lbs. 

14.3 

7.7 

15.4 

11.0 

17.6 

6.6 


Lbs. 

2.2* 
11.0 


Lbs. 

8.8 
4.4 

13.2 
13.2 

7.7 

5.5 

11.0 


Lbs. 

2.2 
3.3 

1.1 
1.1 
4.4 
4.4 
2.2 


Lbs. 

2.03 
1.76 

1.94 
1.94 
2.01 
1.76 
1.83 


Lbs. 

13.18 
11.42 

13.96 
12.85 
15.17 
11.13 
13.54 


Lbs. 

.75 

.84 

.75 
.75 
.86 
.79 
.73 


Lbs. 
1-7 7 


Brussels 


1-7 7 


Bordeaux — 
Winter 


1-8 2 


Summer 


4.4 

1.7 

11.0 

15.4 


1:7 6 


Hamburg 


1:8 6 


Munich 


1-7 4 


Vienna 


1:8 4 









*1.1 pounds additional of peas. 

In examining these rations, we observe that corn usually con- 
stitutes a part of the ration. Most of the corn used in the 
United Kingdom and Germany comes from this country. Even 
with the increased cost incident to importation, many companies 
find it a relatively cheap food, and make large use of it. 

1 Report of the Statistician, October, 1894, Department of Agriculture, 
Washington. 



CHAPTER XX. 

CALF REARING. 

I. Findings of the Investigators. 

515. Birth weight of calves. — According to Krafft, ^ the weight 
of calves at birth is from oue-twelfth to one-fourteenth the weight 
of the dam. This authority places the weight at birth as follows: 

Bh'th weight. 
Pounds. 

Light-weight calves 48 — 66 

Average calves 66 — 92 

Heavy calves 97 — 110 

Verj' heavy calves 115 — 128 

516. Whole milk for calves. — Bertschinger gives the following 
results for feeding trials with whole milk to calves in the Canton 
of Zurich, Switzerland :2 

Number of calves fattened 34 

Duration of fattening period, weeks llj 

Quantity of whole milk fed, per calf, pounds 1,612.6 

Live weight of calves at beginning, pounds 102.5 

Increase in weight, pounds 166.4 

One pound of increase, live weight, was obtained for each 10.1 
pounds of whole milk fed. 

Martinys found that from 3.5 to 6 pounds of new milk were 
sufficient to produce a pound of gain, live weight, with calves 
between the first and fifth weeks, while from 16 to 20 pounds were 
required for a pound of gain with older animals. 

At the Pennsylvania Station, * Hunt fed three calves full milk 
containing an average of 4.6 per cent, of fat for 161 days. These 
calves gained 1.77 pounds each daily, requiring 8.7 pounds of 

» Lehrb. d. Ldw., 3, 1890, p. 85. 

2 Fleischniaun, Molkereiwesen, 1876, p. 150. 

3 Die Milch, 2, 1871, pp. 9-15. 
* Kept. 1891. 



Calf Bearing. 335 

whole milk and one pound each of hay and grain for one pound 
of growth. (356) 

517. Feeding skim milk. — Fleischmanni quotes an experiment 
with six calves receiving skim milk only. Twelve pounds of 
skim milk were required for one pound of gain. 

Beckhusen^ reports feeding trials with calves receiving skim 
milk and making an average daily gain of 2.1 pounds. One 
pound of gain was produced from 13.3 pounds of skim milk. 
From 7.9 to 20.1 pounds of skim milk were required for one pound 
of gain, according to the age of the animal. (357) 

518. Separator skim milk. — Du Eoi^ fed 18 calves, averaging 
91.5 ijounds at birth, for 37 days. Each calf received 11.4 pounds 
of fidl milk and 896.7 pounds of separator skim milk, and gained 
on the average 52.9 pounds, giving one pound of increase for 16 
pounds of separator skim milk. In this trial one pound of new 
milk was considered equal to two pounds of skim milk. 

519. The Iowa Station tests. — Calf rearing with separator skim 
milk has been studied by Curtiss, of the Iowa Station, ^ who gives 
the following recent important results. Milk from the college 
dairy herd was fed immediately after it had passed through the 
separator, the temperatui-e being from 85 to 90 degrees Fahr. 
The chief object of the experiments was to determine the best 
grain to feed in connection with skim milk. Oil meal, oat meal 
and corn meal, with a little ground flax seed additional, were 
used. The first test, conducted during the summer, lasted sixty 
<lays, with two calves, — one Short-horn and one Holstein in each 
lot, — averaging 182 pounds when the trial began. The second 
trial, with two calves in each lot, conducted during the fall and 
winter, lasted ninety days. The calves were high-grade Short- 
horns, from two to three weeks old when the feeding began. The 
third trial was conducted during the winter with four pure- 
bred Short-horns in each lot, averaging 200 pounds when the 
trial began. From thirteen to twenty pounds of skim milk were 
fed to each calf daily in these trials. The calves in Lot I were 

* Molkereiwesen, p. 368; Milch Zeitung, 1875, p. 1481. 
2 Milch Zeitung, 1880, p. 214. 

« Der Landbote, 1887, No. 14, and v. d. Goltz, Landw. 3, p. 420. 

* Bui. 35. 



336 



Feeds and Feeding. 



fed oil meal and milk. Lot II received ground oats and milk, 
the hulls of the oats having been sieved from the ground grain 
in the second and third trials. Lot III received corn meal with 
about 10 per cent, of ground flax seed additional. A summary 
of the trials api^ears in the following table: 

Summary of three trials with separator sldm milk and various 
meals — Iowa Station. 



Kind of feed. 


> 

o 
Em 

o 
6 

l2i 


Total feed given. 


Total 
gain. 


Av. 

daily 

gain 

per 

head. 


Dry 

matter 
per 100 
pounds 
of gain. 


Cost of 

feed 

per 

pound 

of 

gain. 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 


Lot I. Oil meal 


8 


9,1()8 lbs. sep. milk ... 
1,728 lbs. hay 


Lbs. 
873 


Lbs. 
1.47 


Lbs. 
339 


Cts. 
2.8 


1 :2.6 




703 lbs. oil meal 








Lot II. Oat meal 
and milk 


8 


9,1(jO lbs. Sep. milk ... 

1,730 lbs. hay 

875 lbs. oat meal 


927 


1.57 


337 


2.1 


1:3.6 






Lot III. Corn meal, 


8 


9,l(i8 lbs. sep. milk ... 
l,7?.l lbs. hay 


925 


1.56 


330 


2.2 




flax seed and 
milk _ 


772 lbs. corn meal... 
84 lbs. flax seed 


1 :4 



Commenting on the exi)eriments, Curtiss writes: ''The results 
of all the investigations made at this Station strongly indicate that 
it is not only unnecessary but poor economy and poor practice in 
feeding to use a highly nitrogenous product like oil meal in com- 
bination with separator skim milk. The practice has neither 
logical reason nor scientific theory for its support; and in the corn- 
belt states, with their surplus of corn and oats, there is no neces- 
sity for the purchase of a high-priced nitrogenous product to be 
used in supplementing the skim-milk ration." (199) 

520. Gravity versus separator skim milk. — Thirty-two calves 
less than 10 weeks old, weigliing on an average 130 pounds, were 
fed from 30 to 50 days on three Danish estates under the direction 
of the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station. ^ The calves received 
about 20 pounds of separator skim milk daily per head in addi- 
tion to oats, i^eauut meal, corn, barley or hay, singly or combined. 
The average weight of the calves at the beginning of the exj)eri- 



Kept. 1894. 



Calf Bearing. 337 

ment and the gain made, togetlier with the fat content of the 

skim milk, are given in the following table: 

Gravity Separator 

skim milk. skim. milk. 

Average weight per head at beginning, pounds. ... 130 . 2 132 . 7 

Daily gain per head, pounds 1.50 1.43 

Difference in favor of gravity skim milk, pounds. .07 

Fat content of the milk, per cent .60 .14 

From the above we learn that where ^he gravity skim milk pro- 
duced a gain of 1.5 pounds per day, the calves fed on separator 
skim milk gained 1.43 pounds daily. When the value of the 
excess of butter fat left in the gravity skim milk is taken into con- 
sideration, it will be seen that the increase in weight of the calves 
was of much less value than the butter which the excess fat would 
have made. 

521. Feeding cod liver oil, oleomargarine and sugar. — At the 
Massachusetts Station, Lindsey ^ found that cod liver oil added to 
the skim milk fed to calves proved unsatisfactory, the animals 
sometimes refusing the food containing it. A cheap grade of 
oleomargarine was heated to 110 degrees Fahr., and mixed with 
the skim milk by churning. It was found that one ounce of oil 
per quart of skim milk was all that the calf could take with- 
out producing indigestion. Cotton-seed oil and corn oil to the 
amount of one-half ounce per quart of milk were fed without 
bad effect. A calf fed skim milk to which was added one part 
oleo and two parts brown sugar gave good results, making a gain 
of over two pounds daily, with the kidneys well covered with 
fat. Calves fed on this artificial milk were superior to those re- 
ceiving skim milk, but not equal in fatness to sucking calves. 

522. Flax seed. — Behrens found that calves receiving about 
one-half pound of flax seed per day with skim milk made an 
average gain of 1.85 pounds per day, while those receiving skim 
milk only, gained 1.55 pounds. 

523. Whey for calf feeding. — Graef, ^ testing the relative value 
of whey and skim milk, secured a gain of two pounds per day 
with calves fed on skim milk, while those fed whey gained from 
1 to 1.4 pounds only. The quantities of food are not stated. (359) 

1 Rents. 1893-94. 

2 Milch Zeitung, 1880, p. 143. 

22 



338 Feeds and, Feeding. 

524. Producing veal on pastures. — Krafft* reports the fatten- 
ing of calves on tlie low lands of the Schleswig-Holstein marshes, 
where veal of excellent quality is produced. One hectare (2.47 
acres) of pasture is considered necessary to produce 600 kilo- 
grams (1,320 pounds) of gain, or 534 pounds of gain per acre. 
The flesh of such calves cannot be "veal" in the usual accepta- 
tion of that term. 

525. Gain from skim milk fed calves and pigs. — Fleischmann, ^ 
reviewing the increase of calves and swine fed skim milk, con- 
cludes that calves make greater gains from a given quantity of 
skim milk than do pigs. (741, 869-71, 886-8) 

II. Bearing the Calf. 

526. Feeding for beef. — Where beef is the principal object, the 
calf is usually allowed to draw its milk supply direct from the 
dam. In such cases few precautions are necessary, the most im- 
portant being to see that the young thing does not get too much 
milk, as this causes indigestion. If the calf remains with the 
dam, the udder of the cow should be stripped clean night and 
morning; neglect may result in soreness to the teats and udder, 
ending in destroying the usefulness of the dam. If the calf is 
getting too much feed, the supply should be diminished by strip- 
ping the cow after allowing it to take only part of the milk, 
remembering that the last milk yielded by the cow is the 
richest in fat, (615) and that it is the richness as well as the 
quantity that causes trouble. Where calves are separated from 
their dams, at first allow them to suck three times daily, soon re- 
ducing to twice a day. The greatest danger in this system comes 
at weaning time, when, if the calf has not been properly taught 
to eat solid food, it is apt to pine and shrink in weight, or at least 
make little gain. To avoid this, teach it to eat a little grain 
daily, using ground corn, bran, oil meal and hay. 

The first departure from the primitive system above described 
is putting two calves with each cow, which is practicable and de- 
sirable where the cow yields a good flow of milk. 

The sucking calf should gain 3 pounds per day for the flrst 
month, 2.5 pounds for the second and 2 pounds for subsequent 

1 Landw., 3, p. 163. » Molkereiwesen, p. 373. 



CcHf Rearing. 339 

months. Hunt' s experiments show that calves given full milk from 
the pail require from 8 to 9 pounds of whole milk for each pound of 
gain, and make a gain of over 1.75 pounds daily. While in the 
beef districts the calf will be allowed to take its own milk, there 
are sections where the stockman finds it more profitable to sell 
the fat of milk in the form of butter and use substitutes for the 
fat together with skim milk as feed for the calf. This system 
involves labor, skill and watchfulness on the part of the feeder, 
but its success has been demonstrated on many farms. 

After weaning, good growth will be continued by using oats 
and corn with a little oil meal, supplying at all times plenty of 
bright hay or fodder corn. Nothing excels pasture grass for flesh- 
building with the beef calf, and to approximate this in winter 
the stockman should have roots or silage in order to keep the 
young animals in a sappy, growing condition. The stockman 
should not forget that the "calf fat" or first fat of the calf must 
not be lost if beef is the ultimate object. 

527. Rearing the dairy calf. — The fat of milk has too high a 
value with the dairyman to be used for calf feeding, and experi- 
ence has shown that dairy stock of the highest quality can be 
produced from feeding skim milk. Under this system the calf 
is allowed to draw milk from the dam for two or three days, early 
weaning being preferable for both cow and calf. The calf should 
always get the first milk (colostrum) of the cow, as this is neces- 
sary for properly clearing the bowels and starting the digest- 
ive functions. (355) Warm full milk is fed from the pail not 
less than three times daily until the calf is two or three weeks 
old, after which skim milk is gradually substituted. From one 
to two weeks should pass in changing from full milk to skim 
milk. Oil meal converted to jelly by adding boiling water is 
relished by young calves, which soon learn to look for it at 
the bottom of the pail. At first a tablespoonful of oil meal is 
sufficient for a fed. This may be increased gradually, as the calf 
grows, to half a pound per day. Cui'tiss has shown that corn 
meal is an excellent and cheap addition to milk for calves; oats, 
shorts or other grain feeds may also be used. 

The supply of full milk for the calf should be not over 10 
pounds at first, and end with 15 pounds daily. The skim mill^ 



340 Feeds and Feeding. 

should not exceed 18 pounds daily until the calf is five weeks 
old, and only in rare cases should an amount beyond 24 pounds 
be given. Many calves are destroyed by being overfed with skim 
milk by persons who act as though they thought to make up the 
lacking qualities of this feed by giving more of it. Young calves 
should be fed not less than three times daily until four or five weeks 
old. The milk should be heated to blood temperature, and the 
careful feeder will use a thermometer to ascertain the proper degree. 

Where calves do poorly on skim milk, the results are charge- 
able to the abuse of that feed. Too large a supply of milk, in- 
frequent and irregular feeding, milk too cold for digestion, and 
sour feeding-pails, are the causes of nine-tenths of the trouble. 

The calf is best taught to drink by using the fingers. The 
various devices for calf feeding are usually unsatisfactory and 
often dangerous because of accumulations of milk in concealed 
places, which cannot be washed out, but remain to become 
putrid and disease-breeding. The calf is taught to eat grain by 
placing a handful of whole or ground oats, shorts or other feed 
in its mouth immediately after supplying the milk. Allow no 
more grain in the feed box than will be wholly consumed between 
feeds. Hay from early-cut grass or clover should also be supplied. 
Calves should be tied if they annoy one another. Properly fed 
on skim milk, with oil meal, corn, oats or other grain additional, 
the careful feeder can count on a gain with calves of from one 
and a half to two pounds per day for the first four months. 

In rearing calves intended for beef production there is little 
danger in crowding them rapidly, every pound gained bringing 
the animal so much nearer the desired end. The dairy calf should 
be fed in such a manner as to insure a steady growth without 
tendency to become fat. The food should be nutritious, but not 
concentrated in character. Clover hay, corn stover, and silage 
without much corn in it, with a little straw, should constitute the 
roughage. Bran, barley and oats are excellent for the small 
allowance of grain required. A calf intended for a model dairy 
cow should not gain over one and one-half pounds per day for the 
first four months and less thereafter. 

528. Whey. — In the cheese districts, calves are frequently raised 
upon whey, which feed is a poor substitute for even skim milk. 



Calf Hearing, 341 

When used, whey should be fed in not too large quantity and 
amends made for the abstracted constituents by the addition of 
oil meal, ground oats, etc. Care should be taken to feed the 
whey while as nearly sweet as possible, and all vessels holding it 
should be scalded daily so as to be free from a sour taint. While 
none too good in itself, any nutritive qualities whey may possess 
are rendered of still less worth by allowing it to ferment or by 
feeding in dirty vessels. (359) 

529. Hay tea. — Stewart^ gives the following experience with a 
hay-tea ration for calves: ''This old expedient to rear calves 
without milk had an excellent basis, as do most common prac- 
tices. The soluble nutritive constituents of the hay are extracted 
by boiling, (53) and this extract contains all the food elements 
required to grow the animal, besides being as digestible as milk. 
If the hay is cut early, when it has most soluble matter, and is 
of good quality, the tea will grow good calves, but this extract 
frequently has too small a proportion of albuminous and fatty 
matter. Yet, if the hay tea is boiled down so as not to contain too 
much water for the dry substance, calves will usually thrive upon 
it. We tried an experiment by feeding two gallons of hay tea, in 
which one-fourth of a pound of flax seed and one-fourth of a pound 
of wheat middlings had been boiled, to each of five calves thirty 
days old. This experiment was continued sixty days, with a 
gradual increase, during the last thirty days, of the middlings to 
one pound per day. These calves did remarkably well, gaining 
an average of a little over two pounds per head per day." 

530. Feed and care after weaning. — With calves properly bred 
for the intended purpose — thrifty, fat and sleek-coated if de- 
signed for beef production, and in fair flesh, with a bright eye, 
if intended for dairying — the foundation of a good herd is laid. 
The stockman should always bear in mind that gains are never 
so cheaply made, so far as feed is concerned, as with the young 
animal, and for this reason, if no other, it should be pushed ahead 
as rapidly as is consistent with the end in view. 

The table of feeding stuffs (349) shows that milk contains a large 
proportion of protein for muscle -making as well as ash for building 
» Feeding Animals, p. 246. 



542 Feeds and Feeding. 

the framework of tlie young. In the composition of milk — 
Nature's food for the young — we have a guide to the formation 
of rations for young, growing animals. Pasture grass is also rich 
in protein, and should be the main reliance when available. Oil 
meal and oats, mixed with corn, are the best concentrates for 
growing beef animals, while some oil meal, together with oats, 
shorts and bran, with ample roughage, are most desirable for 
those of the dairy type. Counteract the tendency of grain feeds 
to make rigid, hard flesh by the use of pasture grass in summer 
and roots or silage in winter. Always keep the young things in a 
sappy, growing condition. For roughage, aside from pasture and 
silage, use corn stalks, clover or alfalfa hay, these two latter feeds 
being rich in protein, for building the muscular system. A liberal 
amount of bulky feed should always be supplied young cattle 
to stimulate the growth of a roomy digestive tract. This is 
especially important with heifers designed for the dairy. If con- 
fined indoors the calf should have before it at all times, or at 
frequent intervals, a sod of loamy earth. A double handful of 
earth is good if nothing better is at hand. Why the calf should 
crave earthy matter cannot always be explained, but, knowing 
the fact, let the creature be supplied with this substance, feeling 
assured that Nature makes no mistake in matters like this, even 
if for the present they are beyond our understanding. 

531. Fall calves. — Where cattle are reared under natural con- 
ditions, the rule that the young be dropped in the spring will 
continue, but this practice is not necessarily the most successful 
in the older sections of the country. Fall-dropped calves come 
at a time when the little attentions they need can easily be given, 
and they occupy but little space in barn or shed. Subsisting on 
the mother's milk, or on skim milk with a little grain and hay, 
when spring comes the youngsters are large enough to make good 
use of the pastures, and the result is progress from the start, 
until fall, when they return to the barn or shed large enough and 
strong enough in digestion to make good use of the dry provender 
necessitated by winter conditions. 



(Mf Rearing. 343 

III. Feeding for Veal. 

532. Essentials. — To meet tlie highest requirements of the 
market, veal should not only carry a considerable amount of fat, 
but the flesh must show to the practiced eye that no coarse food 
has been eaten by the calf from birth to the time of slaughter. 
For the highest grade of veal, whole milk is the one feed allowed 
and growth must be pushed as rapidly as possible, the whole pro- 
cess being completed before there is any tendency in the meat to 
take on the coarse character incident to the beef period. The 
demand for fine veal is growing, and can be greatly increased by 
supplying a high-grade product. In this line of meat production 
the farmers in parts of Europe are far in the lead. Dutch butchers 
are extremely expert in judging whether the calf has received 
any other feed than whole milk. Only when whole milk has 
been used exclusively is the white of the eye of the veal calf free 
from any yellow tint, and the insides of the eye-lids, lips and nose 
perfectly white. 

533. A Scotch system of veal making. — At Strathaven, Scot- 
land, a region noted for the excellence of its veal, ^ the calves are 
fed on fresh cow's milk, the youngest receiving that first drawn 
from the cows and the older ones the last and richer portion; (615) 
thus one calf is often fed portions of milk which come from two 
or three cows. After the third week they receive as much milk 
twice a day as they will take. After feeding they are bedded, 
the stable being kept rather warm and dark. Lumps of chalk 
are placed where the calves have access to them. The fattening 
period continues from five to seven weeks, when a dressed weight 
of 100 to 120 pounds is secured. 

In the vicinity of London veal calves are fed for about ten 
weeks in isolated pens, as in Holland. They ordinarily dress 140 
pounds. 

534. The Dutch system. — In Holland, where unusually heavy, 
well-fatted calves are a specialty, the following practices are com- 
mon, according to Forssell:^ As soon as dropped the calf is placed 
in a stall which is so narrow that it cannot turn around though it 



^ Molk. Zeit., 1894, p. 547. 

2 Fodret och Utfodringen, 1893, p. 155. 



344 Feeds and Feeding. 

can lie and stand comfortably. The floor of the stall is of lattice 
work or perforated boards and littered daily so that the animal 
has a perfectly dry berth. The stalls are 6.5 feet long by 1.6 
broad and about 5 feet high. The calf barn is kept dark. (89) 
Twice' or three times daily the calves get as much milk as they 
will drink, and during the first fourteen days only the dam's milk 
is fed. Eggs or other by-feeds are not given. The calf consumes 
about 34 pounds of full milk daily on the average for the whole 
fattening period of ten or twelve weeks, at which time the veal is 
considered to be at its best. To prevent calves from eating feed 
other than milk they are muzzled if straw or other roughage 
is used for bedding. Finely-ground shells and sand are given to 
prevent scouring. The dressed weight ranges from 187 to 220 
pounds, or, according to Eost, ^ from 220 to 330 pounds. One 
pound of gain is made in the beginning from eight pounds of 
milk, and toward the close from twelve pounds, the average 
being ten pounds. ^ 

The fat calf dresses from 55 to 60 per cent, of its live weight. 

1 Molk. Zeit., 1894, p. 547. 

2 Kraft, Landwirtschaft, III, p. 163. 



CHAPTEE XXI. 



RESULTS OF STEER-FEEDING TRIALS AT THE STATIONS. 

I. Findings icitJi Various Feeds. 

535. Difficulties of steer fattening. — Among farm animals there 
is none so difficult to ex]3eriment with, all things considered, as 
the fattening steer. In this work the returns for the feed supplied 
are measured by the gain of the animal from day to day. While 
at first it is not difficult to increase the weight of the steer, the 
problem is far from easy when the final stages of the fattening 
period are reached. The animal then has a dainty appetite and 
is easily thrown off feed by small variations in the character or 
amount of the provender supplied. Other influences also, such as 
the weather, surroundings, attendants, etc., go to produce favor- 
able or unfavorable results. Considering the difficulties, it is not 
surprising that many of the early feeding trials with steers by our 
Stations have not furnished data which will stand the test of time. 
Some good work has been done, however, as these images show. 

536. Ear corn compared with corn meal. — At the Kansas Sta- 
tion, 1 Georgeson compared ear corn and corn meal for feeding 
steers, with the results shown in the table: 

Feeding com and corn meal to steers — Kansas Station. 



Feed. 


Av. wt. 

of steer 
at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Total 
grain 
eaten. 


Fodder 
eaten. 


Total 
gain. 


Feed for 100 
pounds gain. 




Grain. 


Stover. 


J^irst trial. 
Corn meal 


Lbs. 

1,211 
1,215 


Lbs. 

3,575 
4,027 


Lbs. 

940 
1,341 


Lbs. 

268 

284 


Lbs. 

1,334 
1,418 


Lbs. 

a5o 


Ear corn 


472 






Second trial. 

Corn meal 


1,129 
1 , 158 


2,646 
3,223 


607 
535 


290 
230 


911 

1,402 


209 


Ear corn 


232 







» Buls. 34, 60. 



346 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Three-year-old Kansas range steers were fed in the first trial 
and two- and three -year- old grade Short-horns in the second. In 
each case the steers were divided into two lots of five each, one 
receiving ear corn and stover and the other corn meal and stover. 
The first trial lasted six months and the second five months. 

By the table we are shown that the steers fed ear corn gained 
somewhat more than those fed corn meal; they required, however, 
eighty-four pounds or six per cent, more grain. 

Commenting upon the first trial as above reported, Georgeson 
writes as follows: ''This is not a very favorable showing for corn 
meal, and I confess the result is contrary to my expectations. A 
considerable percentage of the whole corn passes through the 
animal undigested, and it would seem that the digestive juices 
could act to better advantage on the fine corn meal than on the 
partially-masticated grains of corn and extract more nourishment 
from it, but apparently this is not the case." 

In the second trial there was a saving of 35 per cent, of the 
corn by grinding, which may be regarded as the extreme saving 
possible in such feeding. This result is the largest saving of grain 
by grinding yet reported by any of the Stations so fa,r as the writer 
is able to learn. (156, 382, 582, 848) 

537. Soaked corn. — At the Kansas Station, ^ Georgeson divided 
a bunch of ten thrifty steers into two lots of five each, giving the 
first corn which had been soaked until it had begun to soften, 
while the second received dry corn. Both lots were confined in 
open yards with sheds for shelter, and received the same rough- 
age. All statements of the corn fed are based on the weight of 
dry corn. The trial began November 7, lasting five months, with 
the results shown in the table: 

Results obtained when feeding soaked and dry shelled corn — Kansas 

Station. 



Feed. 


Av. wt. 

of steers. 


Total 
corn 
eaten. 


Total 

fodder 

eaten. 


Whole 
gain. 


Av. gain 

per 

head. 


Grain 

per 100 

pounds 

gain. 


Fodder 

per 100 

pounds 

gain. 




Lbs. 

i,(m 

1,033 


Lbs. 

16,244 

15,787 


Lbs. 

8,127 
8,340 


Lbs. 

1,468 
1,632 


Lbs. 

294 
326 


Lbs. 

1,105 
938 


Lbs. 
554 




612 







1 Bui. 47. 



BesuUs of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations. 



347 



The table shows that the steers fed soaked corn did not consume 
quite as much grain as the other lot, yet made a better gain. In 
this trial there was a saving of fifteen per cent, by soaking shelled 
corn. (375) 

538. Gain of shotes following steers. — Fortunately Georgeson 
placed eight thrifty shotes, averaging eighty-eight pounds per 
head, with each lot of steers, to pick up the corn voided in the 
droppings. At first they subsisted entirely on such corn, but 
later, when they had grown larger, they were supplied additional 
grain from a trough, with the following results: 

Extra feed and gain of shotes following steers fed soaked and dry 
corn — Kansas Station. 



Shotes following steers fed — 



Dry corn 

Soaked corn 



Extra 
corn fed. 



Total gain 
of lot. 



Lbs. 

1,272 
1,272 



Lbs. 

747 
635 



Corn fed 

extra per 

100 lbs gain. 



Lbs. 

170 

200 



The above shows that the shotes secured more than one-half 
their feed from the droppings, and that the droppings from steers 
getting dry corn gave the best returns. 

By combining the data of feed and gain with both hogs and 
steers, we ascertain the grain required for the combined gain as 
follows: 

Gain of steers and shotes when shotes followed fattening steers — 
' ♦ Kamas Station. 



Steers fed dry com, with shotes fol 
lowing 

Steers fed soaked corn, with shotes 
following 



Total grain 
fed to steers 
and shotes. 



Lbs. 

17,516 
17,059 



Total gain 

of steers 

and shotes. 



Lbs. 

2,215 
2,267 



Corn for 100 

pounds 

gain. 



Lbs. 

791 

752 



Combining the feed for steers and shotes and likewise the 
gains of both, we find that 791 pounds of corn were required for 



348 



Feeds and Feeding. 



100 pounds of gain of steers and shotes where the steers were fed 
dry corn, and 752 pounds of grain for 100 pounds of gain with 
steers and shotes where the steers were fed soaked corn. This 
shows a net saving, by soaking corn for steers, of about five per 
cent. (583, 634, 880-8r) 

539. Corn and cob meal. — For information on this subject we 
turn to Shelton's investigations conducted at the Kansas Agri- 
cultural College 1 during 188i-85. Ten steers were used each 
year, the trial in 1884 lasting 140 days, and that in 1885, 150 
days. In each trial the steers were divided into two lots of five 
each; corn and cob meal was fed to one lot and corn meal to the 
other, the roughage in both cases consisting of oat straw, orchard- 
grass hay and clover hay. 

Results obtained in feeding corn meal and corn and cob meal to steers — 
Kansas Agricultural College. 



Feed. 


Av. wt. 

of steers 

at be- 
ginning 


Total 
feed. 


Total 
gain. 


Av. 

gain per 
steer. 


Meal 
per 100 
lbs. in- 
crease. 


Av. 

daily 

gain per 

steer. 


Experiment, 1884. 
Corn and cob meal. 
Corn meal 


Lbs. 

815 
847 

1,128 
1,150 


Lbs. 

11,565 
11,612 

12,918 
12,654 


Lbs. 

1,580 
1,460 

1,025 
1,085 


Lbs. 

316 
292 

205 
217 


Lbs. 

732 

795 

1,260 
1,166 


Lbs. 

2.2.5 
2.08 


Experiment, 1885. 
Corn and cob meal. 
Corn meal 


1.44 
1.36 







It is shown that the corn and cob meal gave the best daily gain 
in both cases. In one instance less corn and cob meal was re- 
quired for a given gain, while in the other more was required. 
The average of the two trials shows that a pound of corn and cob 
meal is equal to a pound of pure corn meal in steer feeding. 

In explanation of the marked difference in the amount of feed 
required for a given gain in these two trials, we have the follow- 
ing statement concerning the cattle: " The steers of 1883-84 were 
a thin, half-grown lot of 'natives,' while those in use in 1884-85 
were high-grade Short-horns, mature and full -fleshed at the start." 
The second lot was also fed for a longer period. (158, 382, 633) 



Repts. Prof. Agr., 1884-85. 



Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations. 



349 



540. Corn, cob and husk. — At the Texas Station, ^ Curtis fed 
corn, cob and husk ground coarsely to three steers, and coarsely- 
ground shelled corn to three others, for a period of seventy days, 
with the following results: 

Feeding ground corn, coh and husJc in comparison with ground corn to 
steers — Texas Station. 



Feed. 


Total 
feed. 


Total 
gain. 


Av. gain 
per day. 


Meal for 

100 lbs. 

gain. 


Lot I. Corn, cob and husk meal- 
Lot II. Coarse corn meal 


Lbs. 

2,395 
1,864 


Lbs. 

481 
465 


Lbs. 

2.29 
2.21 


Lbs. 

498 
400 







The table shows that where 400 pounds of clear corn meal gave 
100 pounds of increase, there were required 498 pounds of husk, 
cob and corn together. The weight of the cob and husk was 72 
pounds for each 56 pounds of shelled corn. Omitting the cob and 
husk, it is found that 100 pounds of gain was made from 388 
pounds of meal plus the cob and husk. This shows a saving of 
three per cent, by feeding the cob and husk with the grain. 

541. Time required for corn to pass through the steer. — At the 
Kansas Station, 2 Georgeson determined the time required for corn 
to pass through the alimentary canal of the fattening steer in the 
following manner: To five steers getting white corn, 50 pounds 
of red corn grains were given in three feeds on January 15th, viz. : 
12 M., 3 P. M. and 6 P. M. At 9 A. M. on the IGth the red 
kernels fed the day before began to api^ear in the manure. The 
maximum number of kernels of red corn was reached on the after- 
noon of the 17th, when they began to decrease, until the 19th, 
when only a few kernels were found on washing the droppings 
of each lot. 

542. Amount of corn passing through steers unbroken. — "When 
feeding dry and soaked corn to steers with shotes following as 
described in Articles 537-38, Georgeson"^ determined the quantity 
of corn in the voidings. 

Dui'ing 28 days five steers were fed 3,045 pounds (weight be- 

1 Bui. 2. 2 Bui. 47. 3 Loc. cit. 



350 



Feeds and Feeding. 



fore soaking) of soaked corn, and during that period 339 pounds 
of grains of corn (weight after drying) were washed from the 
voidings. This is 11 per cent, of the total corn consumed by the 
steers during the period- Another lot of five steers was fed 3,060 
pounds of dry shelled corn, the voidings from which gave 486 
pounds of corn, or nearly 16 per cent, of unbroken corn. The 
hogs following steers getting dry corn made greater gains than 
those following steers getting soaked corn. The explanation is in 
the above percentages. 

The corn grains which had passed through the steers were 
found to contain between 55 and 60 per cent, water, those which 
had been soaked previous to feeding having somewhat more than 
the other. The corn which had been fed dry was found to ab- 
sorb still more water when soaked, showing that it had not been 
fully saturated, although it had passed the whole length of the 
alimentary canal. 

543. Wheat meal. — At the Ohio Station, ^ Thorne and Hick- 
man, testing wheat meal in opposition to com meal during two 
feeding trials, secured the results shown in the table: 



Feeding corn meal 


and wheat meal to steers — Ohio Station. 


Feed. 


No. of cat- 
tle fed. 


Daily gain 
per steer. 


Dry sub- 
stance con- 
sumed per 

pound of 
gain. 


Cost of feed 

per pound 

of gain. 


Test, 1894. 
Corn meal 


8 

7 

4 
4 


Lbs. 

2.07 

1.98 

2.02 
1.70 


Lbs. 

10.31 
10.02 

9.90 
, 11.78 


Cents. 
7.79 


Wheat meal 


7.75 


Test, 1895. 
Corn meal 


7.01 


Wheat meal 


8.95 







It is shown in both trials that the steers fed corn meal made 
the highest average daily gain, and made their gain also upon 
less dry matter than the others. At prevailing prices for corn 
and wheat, it is evident that corn is the cheaper feed. No doubt 
some wheat meal may be used with satisfactory results in steer 

1 Bui. 60. 



Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations. 351 

feeding, but it should not constitute tlie exclusive grain feed 
unless prices rule lower than for corn. (166-8) 

544. Bran. — An experiment is reported from Minneapolis ^ in 
which the lightest bran made at the Pillsbury A mill was fed 
with hay to fifteen common steers for a period of four months. 
Each animal was fed separately, all feed being weighed. The 
steers were allowed exercise in a small yard. The steers weighed 
from 800 to 1, 100 pounds at the time the experiment began, in 
May, 1886. The following summarizes the results: 

Pounds. 

Total bran fed 24,064 

Total hay fed 28,925 

Total gain in weight, 15 steei-s 3,545 

Average gain in weight (4 months) 236 

Feed for 100 pounds gain / ^^^^ ^'^^ 

^ ^ I Hay 816 

These satisfactory gains show that bran may be successfully 

used for fattening steers. (175, 206) 

545. Oil meal. — At the Kansas Station, ^ Georgeson fed oil cake 

with hay to three steers averaging 1,050 pounds for a period of 

129 days, with the following results: 

Pounds. 

Oil cake consumed per head 1,639 

Hay consumed per liead 1,822 

Average gain per head 224 

Fed for one hundred pounds gain / ^'^ meal... 732 

I Hay 814 

This experimenter concludes: ''The exclusive diet of oil cake 
did not yield as good results as either the ' balanced ration ' or corn. 
The animal organism appears to be unable to make use of so 
highly concentrated nitrogenous food to good advantage." 

At the Iowa Station, Wilson and Curtiss^ fed oil meal to steers 
on clover pasture, securing a gain of 100 pounds for each 400 
pounds of oil meal fed. Another group of steers on a similar 
pasture required 532 pounds of corn meal for 100 pounds of gain. 

546. Gluten meal. — At the Ohio Station, ^ Thorne and Hick- 
man used gluten meal during two feeding trials, in one of which 
oil meal was fed in opposition. In calculating the results, old- 

1 Fugitive pamphlet, published in 1886. 

2 Bui. 39. =» Bui. 20. ■• Bui. 60. 



352 



Feeds and Feeding. 



process oil meal was figured at $26 per ton, and gluten meal at 
$18 per ton, the current market prices. 

Feeding oil meal and gluten meal — Oliio Station. 



Feed. 


Number 

of cattle 

compared. 


Daily 
gain 
per 

steer. 


Dry sub- 
stance 
consumed 
per pound 

of gain. 


Cost of 

feed per 

pound 

gain. 


Oil meal 


12 
11 
4 
8 
4 
4 


Lbs. 

l.flfi 
2.11 
2.15 
1.98 
2.02 
2.05 


Lbs. 

10.78 
10.05 
10.31 
10.10 
9.90 
11.07 


Cents. 
8 52 


Gluten meal 


7 31 


Mixed meals with gluten meal 

Mixed meals without gluten meal... 

Mixed meals with gluten meal 

Mixed meals without gluten m^eal... 


7.42 
7.49 
7.01 
7.40 



It is seen that gluten meal was a cheaper feed than oil meal at 
the prices stated. Where gluten meal was fed with other grains, 
it always cheapened the cost of production. These experimenters 
conclude: The results warrant the statement that '' for fattening 
cattle these feeding stuffs (gluten meal and oil meal) are approxi- 
mately of equal value, pound for pound, and that the one which 
can be bought for the least money is the one to use." As yet 
the feeding value of this class of corn by-products has been passed 
unnoticed by those who fatten cattle; if experience shall confirm 
their worth as substitutes for oil meal in the feed lot they will 
acquire a new interest with many. (161-164) 

547. Kaffir corn. — At the Kansas Station, i Georgeson divided 
a bunch of twelve grade Short-horn and three grade Hereford 
three-year-old steers into three lots of five each. For concentrates 
the first lot was fed corn meal, the second red Kaffir -corn meal, 
and the third white Kaf&r-corn meal. In each case the grain was 
ground so fine that about three-fourths of the meal passed through 
a sieve having a one-twentieth inch mesh. The roughage during 
the first part of the trial consisted of Kaffir -corn stover; later corn 
stover and alfalfa hay w^ere fed. One hundred pounds of the 
stover were fed daily to each lot of steers, and the rejected por- 
tion weighed and deducted from the total, so that the weights 
in the table are the amounts of forage actually consumed. The 

» Bui. 67. 



Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations. 



353 



results of the trial, which histed 175 days, are presented in the 
following table: 

Feeding Kaffir -corn meal in comparison with corn meal to steers — 

Kansas Station. 



Feed. 


Av. wt. 
at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Feed eaten. 


Av. 
gain 

per 
steer. 


Feed for 100 
pounds gain. 




Grain. 


Rough- 
age. 


Grain. 


Rough- 
age. 


Lot T, corn meal 

Lot II, red Kafflr-corn 
meal 


Lbs. 
1,036 

1,021 

1,025 


Lbs. 
16,271 

16,271 

16,271 


Lbs. 

9,297 

10,300 

10,828 


Lbs. 
326 

299 

313 


Lbs. 

997 

1,086 
1,041 


Lbs. 
569 

688 


Lot III, white Kaffir- 
corn meal 


692 







Commenting on the above, Georgeson writes: "The fact that 
these lots show so little difference in their gains and the value 
received for the grain fed is a gratifying proof of the value of Kaffir 
corn. The feeding value of corn has long been known, but this is the 
first experiment in which Kaffir corn has been tested so thoroughly 
and for so long a period under normal conditions. The steers 
were fair representatives of the grade cattle raised in the Central 
West. They were neither high-bred cattle nor common scrubs. 
The conditions of the experiment were those that i)revail with the 
average farmer and feeder. They were fed in open lots, where 
they could seek the shelter of a small shed when desired, but 
they were not pampered or petted in any way. The results 
obtained in this case can be obtained by any feeder in the state 
without providing better quarters or giving more attention to 
their feed and care than can be and is furnished by the average 
farmer anywhere." (195) 

548. Value of droppings from steers fed Kaffir corn. — In the 
trial above reported, seven shotes were placed with each lot of 
steers to gain what they could from the droppings. Each lot was 
fed substantially the same amount of corn from a trough, the 
allowance being small in order to force the shotes to thoroughly 
work over the droppings. Samples of the steers' droppings were 
washed and the undigested meal separated, dried and weighed 
23 



354 



Feeds and Feeding. 



to ascertain the portion which passed throngh them. The extra 
feed given the shotes^ the available meal in the droppings, the 
gains, etc., are shown in the following table: 

Feed and gain of sJiotes following steers fed corn meal and Kaffir 
corn — Kansas Station. 





Lot I, 

following 

steers fed 

corn 

meal. 


Lot II, 

following 

steers fed 

red Kaffir 

corn. 


Lot III, 

following 

steers fed 

white 

Kaffir 

corn. 


Grain eaten from trough 


Lbs. 

2,520 
705 
635 
507 


Lbs. 

2,520 
1,475 

698 

572 


Lbs. 

2,480 


Calculated feed available in manure 

Gain of each lot 


1,842 
72.5 


Feed available for 100 pounds of gain 


596 



It will be seen that the shotes following the steers fed corn meal 
made 100 pounds of gain from 507 pounds of calculated grain in 
the droppings and the extra allowance supplied from the trough. 
The shotes following the steers fed Kaffir corn made larger gains 
from the same allowance of extra grain fed in the trough than 
those following the steers fed corn meal. This shows that they 
secured more nutriment from the droppings than did the shotes 
following the corn-fed steers. 

Georgeson summarizes this portion of the experiment in the 
following words: ''The experiment proves that hogs can utilize 
Kaffir-corn feed in the manure and bring out the value in pork 
in about the same ratio of values that exists between com and 
Kaffir corn." 

Such results in conjunction with those reported in the preced- 
ing article show the worth of Kaffir corn in the feed lot, and will 
enhance its value in the minds of stockmen of the Southwest in 
districts where the rainfall is scant for maximum corn crops 
though sufficient for this sorghum. 

549. Roots. — The British stockman, the best feeder the world 
knows, has made large use of roots for fattening purposes. The 
American farmer, and especially the stockman at the West, has 
made little or no use of them. For information on this subject we 



Besults of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations. 



355 



naturally turn to Canada, where we find the following experi- 
ment by Brown. ^ Six animals were divided into lots of two each 
and given roots, hay, bran and pea meal, with the following 
results: 

Result of 8Jf. days^ trial icith roots for cattle feeding — Ontario 
Agricidtural College. 





Wt. of 
animals 
at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Daily 

in- 
crease. 


Feed per steer, daily. 




Hay. 


Bran. 


Pea meal. 


Roots. 


Sugar beets 


Lbs. 

1,059 
1,063 
1,061 


Lbs. 

2.31 

2.38 
2.30 


Lbs. 
10.5 

n.5 

12 


Lbs. 

3 
3 
3 


Lbs. 

6.5 
6.5 
6.5 


Lbs. 
52 


Mangels 


55 


Turnips 


52 






Average 


1,081 


2.33 


11.3 

485 


3 
129 


6.5 

279 


53 


Feed for 100 pounds 
ffain 


2,275 







The table shows that somewhat more than a ton of roots, to- 
gether with 400 pounds of pea meal and bran and 500 pounds of 
hay, were required for 100 pounds of increase. (318) 

550. Si(age compared with roots. — The use of silage for cattle 
feeding originated with dairymen, and down to the present time 
steer feeders have always regarded silage iis possibly suitable for 
dairy cows, but too sloppy and sour for beef making. A few have 
made use of silage with favorable results. 

At the Ontario Agricultural College, ^ Shaw fed three groups of 
grade Short-horn steers of two each on silage and roots. The hay 
was timothy and clover, the roots turnips and mangels, and the 
meal equal weights of ground peas, barley and oats. The feed 

consumed per animal daily was: 

^, f / 57.47 pounds silage. 

'^^""P^ t 11.72 pounds meal. 

(30.6 pounds silage. 
11.13 pounds meal. 
9.3 pounds hay. 
{43.07 pounds roots. 
11.12 pounds meal. 
11. 22 pounds hay. 

aiopt. Ont. Agr. Col., 1883. 
2 Rept. 1891. 



356 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The following table shows the result of the trial, beginning De- 
cember 11 and lasting 146 days: 

Feeding steers with roots and silage — Ontario Agricultural College. 



Lot I. 

Silage 
and meal. 



Lot II. 

Silage, 

bay and 

meal. 



Lot III. 

Roots, 

hay and 

meal. 



Weight at commencement 

Gain of two steers, 146 days 

Average gai n per steer 

Average gain per steer per day 



Lbs. 

2,789 
555 
277 
1.90 



Lbs. 

2,735 
448 
224 
1.53 



Lbs, 

2,672 
537 
268 
1.84 



From the table we learn that the steers fed the largest amount 
of silage daily made the greatest total gain with the highest daily 
rate of increase. Placing a reasonable value upon silage and 
roots, the gains from silage were made at a lower cost than those 
from roots. 

At the Wisconsin Station i the writer fed silage to steers with 
excellent results. In one trial, four two- and three-year-old steers, 
fed on corn silage only, made a gain of 222 i^ounds in 36 days, or 
1.5 pounds per day each. It required 3,558 pounds of silage to 
make 100 i)Ounds gain. (393-5) 

551. Fish scrap for fattening steers. — Fink fed three- year- old 
steers^ of the Hoist ein breed 3.3 pounds of fish scrap per head 
per day, the remainder of the ration consisting of hay, potatoes, 
straw, rye, barley and oats. The average daily gain jier head 
during 90 days was 3.3 pounds. The quality of meat was satis- 
factory. (340, 661) 

552. Molasses. — Georgeson^ fed molasses with corn meal and 
corn fodder to three steers for a period of nineteen weeks with 
the following results: 

Total feed required for 100 pounds gain. 

Pounds. 

Molasses 598 

Corn meal 807 

Stover 705 

1 Rept. 1888. 

2 Milch Zeit. 2-5 (1896), p. 51. 

3 Bui. 39, Kan. Expt. Sta. 



Besults of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations. 



357 



Commenting on tliis Georgeson writes: " A mixture of molasses 
and corn meal proved to be a very inferior fattening material." 
(347) 

553. The " balanced " ration. — It is reasonable to suppose, and 
experiment proves, that a combination of two or more varieties 
of grain gives more economical returns for a given weight of 
feed than a single kind. This is illustrated in experiments by 
Georgeson at the Kansas Station. ^ In three trials, one lot of 
steers was fed a ''balanced ration," containing a "judicious mixt- 
ure of corn meal, oil meal, bran and shorts, the proportion of 
the albuminoids and carbohydrates in the feed to approximate the 
requirements of the feeding standard, and in addition to this mixt- 
ure to have what corn fodder and hay they would eat." Against 
steers thus fed were others whose allowance consisted of ear corn, 
with corn stover and prairie hay for roughage. The data given 
are averages for one steer: 

Besult of three years' experiments feeding a '' balanced ration^ ^ 
against ear corn — Kansas Station. 

A. Experiment of 1892, lasting ^ months with 5 steers on each side. 



Rations. 


Av. wt. 
per steer. 


Av. amt. 

grain per 

steer. 


Fodder 
per steer. 


Av. gain 
during 
expt. 


Grain 
per 100 
lbs. gain. 


Fodder 

per 100 

lbs. gain. 


Balanced ration 

Ear corn 


Lbs. 

1,198 
1,213 


Lbs. 

4,357 
4,027 


Lbs. 

1,422 
1,341 


Lbs. 

436 

284 


Lbs. 

1,001 
1,418 


Lbs. 

326 
472 







B. Experiment of 1893, lasting 4 months with 5 steers on each side. 



Balanced ration 
Ear corn 



1,083 
1,073 



2,969 
2,723 



865 
1,214 



309 
274 



961 

994 



280 
443 



C. Experiment of 1896, lasting 5 months with 5 steers on each side. 


Balanced ration 

Ear corn 


1,123 
1,158 


3,055 
3,223 


973 
535 


406 
230 


752 
1,401 


240 
233 



The average of three trials shows: 

Corn consumed for 100 pounds gain 1,271 pounds. 

Mixed grains consumed for 100 pounds gain 905 pounds. 

These figures show that 28 per cent, less grain was required 



1 Buls. 34, 39 and 60. 



358 Feeds and Feeding. 

for 100 pounds of gain when feeding the so-called ''balanced ra- 
tion" than where ear corn alone was given. At most Western 
points the " balanced ration" will cost 28 per cent, more than a 
corn ration, but in many localities it will prove much cheaper 
than corn alone. ^ 

554. Pasturing steers. — Though a large portion of the gain 
made by cattle originates from x^asture, we have little data upon 
the subject. This lack of information is due no doubt to the 
great difierence in the productive power of pastures, and from 
the lack of uniformity of herbage growth from year to year. 
Morrow 2 conducted interesting investigations on the gain of steera 
maintained wholly on tame pastures from May 1 to November 1. 
The gains with different lots are as follows: 

4 head of yearling steers, maintained on pasture alone, showed an aver- 
age gain of 332 jioundg each. 
10 head of yearling steers, maintained on pasture alone, showed an aver- 
age gain of 285 pounds each. 

2 head of yearling steers, maintained on pasture alone, showed an aver- 
age gain of 440 pounds each. 

These gains are probably fully equal to the average obtained 
with cattle on Western tame pastures of good quality. They show 
that from such pastures we may look for a gain of from 300 to 
400 pounds per head for the season with yearling steers. (258) 

555. Feeding grain to steers on pasture. — At the Iowa Sta- 
tion, 3 Wilson and Curtiss, fattening steers on pasture with and 
without grain, obtained the following results: 

10 steers on pasture only, gained 2.01 pounds each daily. 

10 steers on pasture with grain, gained 2.13 pounds each daily. 

The steers fed grain received ten pounds of corn and cob meal 
each daily. 

At the Missouri Agricultural College, * Sanborn conducted two 
trials in feeding steers on grain while on pasture, both at a loss. 



* For a discussion of these experiments by Georgeson, see Qr. Kept. 
Kan. Bd. Agr., Dec. 1897. 

2 Bui. 1, Col. of Agr., Univ. of 111. 
8 Bui. 28. 

* Bui. 8. 



Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations. 



359 



Morrow 1 secured the following gains with steers full fed with 
grain for the season, while on pasture: 

Yearlings. 

2 head of steers showed an average gain of 507 pounds each. 

4 head of steers showed an average gain of 284 jiounds each. 

Two-year-olds. 

7 head of steers showed an average gain of 466 pounds each. 

8 head of steers showed an average gain of 380 pounds each. 

4 liead of steers showed an average gain of 406 pounds each. 

Summarizing his experience, Morrow concludes: "The results 
from two years' trial indicate that a grain ration to young steers 
on good pasture is not usually i^rofitable. The value of the in- 
crease in weight by the grain-fed steers over those having grass 
only will not repay the cost of food and labor. The increased 
value of the animals from earlier maturity and better quality may 
make grain feeding profitable." (666-7) 

556. Water drank during fattening. — The amount of water drank 
by fattening steers, which varies greatly, may be placed at from 
50 to 125 pound per day. Georgeson^ kept a record of the water 
drank by fattening steers, with results as follows: 

Water drank by fattening steers in winter — Kansas Station. 



Feed. 



Water 

drank 

daily per 

steer. 



Water 

drank 

per pound 

gain. 



Water 

drank 

per pound 

of feed. 



Lot 



First trial: 
I, Corn meal, bran, shorts, oil meal 

with hay 

Lot II, Coi-n meal with corn fodder 

Lot III, Ear corn with corn fodder 

Second trial: 
Lot I, Com meal, bran, shorts, oil meal 

with hay 

Lot II, Corn meal, molasses and corn 

fodder 

Lot III, Oilcake, hay 

Lot IV, Ear corn, corn fodder 



Lbs. 

75 
47 
49 

79 

73 
91 
56 



Lbs. 

31 
33 
31 

33 

56 
57 
27 



Lb3. 

2.4 
1.8 
1.6 

2.5 

2.4 
3.4 
1.8 



In the above we observe that where the most protein was fed the 
largest amount of water was drank; the smallest amount with the 
ear -corn and corn- fodder ration. 



»Bul. 1, Col. of Agr., Univ. of 111. 



» Buls. 34, 39, Kan. Sta. 



360 



Feeds and Feeding. 



At the ISTortli Carolina Station, ^ Emery, feeding steers on cot- 
ton-seed meal and hulls, found the following in regard to water 
and dry matter consumed by fattening steers: 

Dry matter eaten and water drank daily by fattening steers per 
1,000 pounds live weight — North Carolina Station. 



Dry matter consumed 

Water drank and in feed 

Total average consumption of dry food and water, 
Pounds water to one pound dry food 



Tied 


Loose 


steers. 


steel s. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


21.3 


21.2 


58.3 


53.9 


79.6 


75.1 


2.7 


2.6 



557. Variation in individual weight while fattening. — The stock- 
man who will weigh a fattening steer daily for a few weeks will 
be surprised at the variation in the weights recorded. Even 
thrifty steers that are steadily fattening, so far as the feeder can 
judge, will show surprising variations in weight from day to day, 
and even from week to week. Much data could be given on this 
point, but a few figures from one of Georgeson' s experiments at 
the Kansas Station'^ will suffice: 

Weekly weight of steers during a, feeding trial — Kansas Station. 



Date. 



Nov. 30 ., 
Dec. 7 .. 
Dec. 14.. 
Dec. 21., 
Dec. 28. 

May 2. 
May 9. 
May 16. 
May 23 . 
May 30. 



Weight 
of steer 
No. 1. 



Lbs. 

1,232 
1 , 269 
1,280 
1,278 
1,325 



1,545 
1,565 
1,597 

1,598 
1,610 



Gain 
or 

loss. 



Lbs. 



37 
11 

2 

47 



20 



1 

12 



Weight 
of steer 
No. 2. 



Lbs. 

1,190 
1,205 
1,213 
1,226 
1,250 



1,583 
1,603 
1,620 
1,643 
1,606 



Gain 
or 

loss. 



Lbs. 



15 

8 

13 

24 



20 
17 
23 
-37 



Weight 
of steer 
No. 3. 



Lbs. 

1,207 
1,240 
1,236 
1,244 
1,270 



1,567 
1,593 
1,619 
1,626 
1,593 



Gain 

or 

loss. 



Lbs. 



38 
-4 

8 
26 



26 

26 

-33 



These variations, which are not extraordinary, show how diffi- 
cult it is to determine the true weight of a steer at any given 



1 Bui. 93. 



2 Bui. 34. 



Results of Steer-feeding Trials at the Stations. 361 

period. Our Experiment Stations are now generally adopting the 
practice of weighing the steer for three successive days and taking 
the average of these three weights as the true weight of the steer on 
the second day. It has been supposed that this variation is due to 
a difference in the amount of water drank from day to day, but 
this exphmation does not always seem sufficient. It is prob- 
ably due in many cases to the irregular movement of the contents 
of the digestive tract, which movement is influenced by changes 
in the character and quality of the food consumed, the exercise 
or confinement enforced, and the effect of the weather. 

II. Beef Making at the South. 

558. What Southern Stations have found. — For generations the 
effort of the South has been toward cotton production, which de- 
mands scrupulously clean culture. Until recently grass has been 
a despised plant, but it is now overrunning many of the old 
plantations, and while restoring the soil to something like its 
former fertility and clothing the gashed fields with a carpet of 
green, it is giving good returns in nutritious food to the cattle 
grazing upon it. Many a worn-out cotton plantation can be made 
to yield in Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, Japan clover, corn, 
sorghum and other plants, an amount of feed that would surprise 
Northern stockmen. 

559. Cotton seed for beef production. — Equally important with 
the growth of grass is the enormous production of cotton seed, 
which furnishes a most A'aluable feed for cattle. Cotton seed, 
either raw, boiled or roasted, furnishes a nutritious food for cattle, 
while meal from the seed is the lichest stock food produced in 
this country. The hulls of the cotton seed have been found to 
possess considerable feeding value as a substitute for hay. Because 
of their abundance and availability they constitute a factor of 
importance in steer feeding at the South. 

Ssveral of the Southern Experiment Stations have been doing 
useful work in showing the value and importance of the cotton 
seed and its by-products for steer feeding. "While it is impossi- 
ble to report all the results in this line, the following examples 



362 



Feed^ and Feeding. 



are given as representing tlie territory interested and furnisliing 
data concerning the important points of tlie subject: 

Results obtained with steers fed cotton seed in various forms at 
Southern Experiment Stations. 

Results by McConnell, Texas Station.' 



Feed for 100 lbs. of gain. 



£ 


Av.wt. 

at be- 


Gain 


Av. 
daily 


*• I' 






gam 


,yf*^ 




bead. 


per 


■^ w 


ning. 




bead. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


4 


ft38 


186 


1.86 


4 


02.3 


199 


1.99 


4 


BSO 


207 


2.07 


4 


576 


192 


1.92 


4 


015 


203 


2.03 


4 


513 


266 


2.66 


4 


513 


222 


2 22 


4 


rm 


223 


2.23 


4 


5U 


208 


2.08 


4 


622 


193 


1.93 



Lbs. 

268 Cotton-seed meal.... 
2(H Roasted cotton seed 
2.')6 Boiled cotton seed.. 
276 Raw cottonseed 



185 Cotton-seed meal... 
229 Roasted cotton seed 
233 Boiled cotton seed.. 
246 Raw cotton seed 



Lbs. 

388 hulls 

322 corn 

372 corn 

269 corn 

694 corn 



2.52 hulls. 
312 corn.. 
b68 corn.. 
291 corn.. 
759 corn.. 



Lbs. 

1074 silage. 
216 hay. 
201 hay. 
276 hay. 
371 hay. 

713 silage. 
1.58 hay. 
128 hay. 
155 hay. 
185 hay. 



Results by Emery, North Carolina Station." 


4 
4 


796 

784 


178 
184 


1.78 
1.84 


224 Raw cotton seed 

231 Raw cotton seed 


1021 cotton-seed hulls 
1016 cotton-seed hulls 












Re 


suits by Bennett and Menke, Arkansas Station.' 


2 

2 
2 


589 
721 
710 


247 
221 
176 


2.74 
2.45 
1.95 


209 Raw cotton seed 

185 Raw cotton seed 

175 Raw cotton seed 


707 cotton-seed hulls 
603 cotton-seed hulls 
580 cotton-seed hulls 




425 pea hay. 
412 pea hay. 


Results by Stubbs, Louisiana Station.* 


6 
5 


774 

727 


154 
153 


2.2 

2.8 


298 Cotton-seed meal... 
231 Cotton-seed meal... 


10.53 cotton-seed hulls 
672 cotton-seed hulls 


85molasse.s. 
62 molasses. 



1 Bui. 27. " Bui. 93. » 3d Ann. Rept. Ark. Expt. Sta. * Bui. 34, 2d Ser. 

This table shows the high value of the cotton seed, whether 
i-aw, roasted or boiled, and also of its by-product, cotton-seed 
meal, for beef production. No grain raised at the North equals it, 
pound for pound, for beef production. When we reflect that for 
every pound of cotton fiber grown there are two pounds of seed, 
no argument is needed to convince us that the South is capable 
of producing the beef required for home consumption. 

Connell found, as shown by the preceding table, that the cheap- 
est ration was raw cotton seed with about equal weights of corn 



Results of Steer -feeding Trials at the Stations. 363 

and hay. Sucli a mixture is not only economical, but will prob- 
ably make better meat than cotton-seed meal or cotton seed fed 
as the sole concentrate. 

Connell and Carson, of the Texas Station, ^ having fed cotton- 
seed meal and hulls in varying proportions to fattening steers, 
conclude that the largest daily gain can be secured by feeding 
three pounds of hulls for each pound of meal. If a larger pro- 
portion of meal is fed the cost of the gain will be somewhat in- 
creased. "When the price of a ton of cotton-seed meal is to the 
price of a ton of hulls as 5 to 1, then a pound of meal should be 
fed for each five pounds of hulls. For example, if meal is worth 
$15 a ton and the hulls $3, then five pounds of hulls should be 
fed for each pound of meal. If the hulls are worth less in pro- 
portion, then more hulls should be fed in proportion to the meal. 
(210-215) 

560. "Fat sickness." — Cattle fed on cotton-seed meal and 
hulls are occasionally afflicted with inflammation of the eyes, 
which may terminate in total loss of sight. The trouble has been 
attributed to damaged cotton seed, to mal-nutrition, etc., but 
nothing definite has yet been determined. ' '■ Fat sickness ' ' may 
attack thrifty, fat cattle. Cattle fattened on meal are said to be 
especially liable to attacks when turned to pasture. The trouble 
is prevalent during certain seasons, while in other years no cattle 
are affected. It is reasonable to suppose that furnishing a larger 
variety of food in the ration would prevent the difficulty. 

» Bui. 41. 



CHAPTEE XXII. 

FACTORS IN STEER FATTENING — FINAL RESULTS. 

I. Conditions Affecting Fesidts. 

561. Influence of shelter and confinement. — At the Kansas Sta- 
tion, 1 Georgeson, testing the influence of shelter, confined five 
steers by tying in a stable, allowing five others to run loose in an 
open yard with a shed at one side for shelter. The steers were 
Western cattle three years old past, fed ear corn and stover. The 
trial began November 30, lasting six months. The following 
year it was duplicated with grade Short-horns six months younger 
than those in the preceding trial. The second trial began Decem- 
ber 20, continuing four months. The third trial followed the 
plan of the other two. The steers were mostly grade Short- 
horns, two and one-half to three years old, and were put into 
the feed lot October 23, — the feeding continuing five months. 
The results of the three trials are herewith summarized: 

Results of three trials with steers fed in barn and in yard — Kansas 

Station. 



"Where fed. 



1892. Lasting six months. 

Fed in barn 

Fed in yard 

1893. Lasting four months. 

Fed in barn 

Fed in yard 

1895. Lasting Jive inonths. 

Fed in barn 

Fed in yard 



Ear 

corn 

eaten. 



Lbs. 

4,027 

4,871 



3', 158 

8,223 
3,372 



Fodder 
eaten. 



Lbs. 

1,341 

907 

1,214 
1,444 

535 
457 



Gain. 



Lbs. 

284 
313 

274 
276 

230 
217 



Ear corn 

per 100 

lbs. gain. 



Lbs. 

1,418 
1,556 

994 
1,144 

1,401 
1,554 



Fodder 
per 100 
lbs. gain. 



Lbs. 

472 

290 

443 
523 

233 
210 



In all the trials the steers running in the yard consumed more 
grain than those confined, and on the whole made larger gains, 

1 Buls. 34, 89. 



Factors in Steer Feeding. 365 

at a cost, however, of about 12 per cent, more grain for a given 
amount of increase. 

Moscropi reports a feeding trial at Yorkshire, England, in 
which three lots of steers of four each were used. The first four 
were confined by tying in the stable, the second placed separately 
in boxes, each 10 x 10 feet, while the third group occupied an open 
lot, along one side of which was a shed. Each lot of steers re- 
ceived the same amount of Indian corn and oil cake, thus throw- 
ing the difference in the amount of feed consumed on the turnips 
and straw chaif which were fed additional. The steers in the 
open lot with shed for shelter made somewhat the most rapid 
gain, consuming, however, about 50 per cent, more turnips than 
those confined by tying. Those in the boxes consumed 25 per 
cent. more. 

At the Woburn Station, England, equally good results were 
obtained in two trials with steers running in a yard with shed for 
shelter, fed in test with others confined in box-stalls. ^ 

Thorne and Hickman at the Ohio Station, ^ feeding steers in 
the barn in opposition to others in the oi^en yard with shed to run 
under, conclude: ''The differences here indicated are not suffi- 
cient to justify the assertion that either method of caring for 
cattle was better than the other." 

At the North Carolina Station, * Emery, testing the effects of 
close confinement and liberty of movement, concludes that if 
cattle are well fed and kept quiet and contented, it does not 
matter, in feeding for fattening purposes, whether they are tied or 
turned loose in a limited range. 

Sanborn, experimenting first in Missouri, ^ and later in Utah, " 
with steers concludes: "It now looks as though the true method 
of wintering cattle consists in giving the freedom of warm quar- 
ters with liberty of outdoor runs at their pleasure." (630) 

562. Changes during fattening to be avoided. — Sometimes as 
grass springs up in May the stockman is not ready to dispose of 



1 Trans. High, and Agr. Soc, 1872. 

2 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1887, 1890. 

3 Bui. 60. ■• Bui. 93, 

s Syn. of Expt. Mo. Expt. Sta. 
e Kept. 18912. 



366 



Feeds and Feeding. 



his cattle, and must choose between continuing stall or yard 
feeding and turning the cattle to pasture for a short time before 
disposing of them. What to do in such cases is often perplexing. 
We have some help in the experiments of Thorne and Hickman 
at the Ohio Station, i 

About May 1 a group of steers which had been fed experi- 
mentally during the winter was divided, part being turned to 
grass and part kept in the stable, grain and hay feeding being 
continued, practically to the full demands of both. The results 
are shown in the following table: 

Results of turning partially -fattened steers to pasture — Oliio Station. 



Treatment. 


Number 
of cattle. 


Dry sub- 
stance 
con- 
sumed 
per steer 
per day. 


Dally 

cost of 

food per 

steer. 


Dally 

gain per 

steer. 


Dry sub- 
stance 
con- 
sumed 

per lb. of 
gain. 


Cost of 

food per 

pound 

of gala. 


1894. 
Lot T, kept in barn 
Lot II, i^astured 30 
days 


16 

15 

8 

8 


Lbs. 
20.16 

15.39 

20.99 

15.21 


Cents. 
15.33 

12.93 

16.09 

12.55 


Lbs. 
2.00 

1.42 

1.76 

1.37 


Lbs. 
10.00 

10.84 

11.95 

11.10 


Cents. 
7.66 

9.10 


1895. 
Lot I, kept in barn 
Lot II, pastured 45 
davs 


9.14 
9.16 







We observe that the steers turned to pasture ate nearly as much 
grain and half as much hay as those kept in the barn. Even 
with this aid the change from barn to pasture did not result 
favorably, as is shown by the smaller daily gain in each case and 
by the increased cost of gain in one instance and equal cost in the 
other. 

At the Iowa Station, 2 Wilson and Curtiss, changing 20 Short- 
liorn and Angus steers from feed lot to pasture, though still 
giving grain, secured a gain of only .6 of a pound per head daily 
during the 15 days in which the gradual change was being made. 
These investigators, ^ in changing another lot of steers back from 
pasture to feed lot in the fall, likewise secured a gain of only .6 of 
a pound per head daily during the 15 days in which the change 
occurred. These steers usually made a gain of about two pounds 

1 Bui. 60. 2 Bui. 28. 3 Bui. 20, Iowa Sta. 



Factors in Steer Feeding. 



367 



each daily. Commenting on the result they write: "A chang- 
ing period is a losing period, if the change is radical." 

These trials accord with the experience of stockmen, who find 
it unsatisfactory to change wholly or nearly finished cattle from 
one set of conditions to another, no matter what the new con- 
ditions. When steers are to be sold at no distant date, it is best 
to continue them under the existing system of feed and confine- 
ment, rather than change to new conditions, even though the latter 
may appear more favorable. 

563. Effect of age on rate of gain. — The daily rate of gain with 
cattle on full feed is directly jiffected by the age of the animal. 
This is illustrated by the records of the fat -stock shows. Some 
of the results obtained in England are shown in the following 
table: 

Age and weight of steers slaughtered at the Smithjield (England) Fat- 
Stock Show, 1888-95. i 



No. of 
animals. 



Age. 



Average 
daily 
gain. 



Live wt. 

at slaugh 

tering. 



Dressed 
meat to 
live wt^ 



Short-horn. 

1 year old 

2 years old 

3 years old 

Hereford. 

1 year old 

2 years old 

3 years old 

Devon. 

1 year old 

2 years old 

3 years old 

Aberdeen-Angus. 

1 year old 

2 years old 

3 years old 

Sussex. 

1 year old 

2 years old 

3 years old 

Sed Polled. 

2 years old 

3 years old 

Oalloway. 

2 years old 

3 years old 



o 

18 
16 

16 
13 

8 

13 
19 
16 

26 
21 

2 

17 
18 
12 

12 



Days. 

6-12 

963 

1,321 

66 
1,020 
1.349 



634 
045 
311 

668 
008 
346 

677 

989 

285 

002 
362 

027 
344 



Lbs. 

2.11 
1.92 
1.70 

1.97 
1.78 
1.64 

1.75 
1.51 
1.37 

2.04 
1.74 
1.59 

2.15 
1.86 
1.61 

1.64 
1.49 



Lbs. 

1,355 
1,842 
2,251 

1,308 
1,817 

2,218 

1,112 

1,583 
1,796 

1,366 
1,76-5 
2,138 

1,452 

1,837 
2,064 

1,631 
2,022 

1,688 
1,969 



Per cent. 

66.13 

67.48 
69.38 

65.08 
67.15 
69.18 

66.01 
67.73 
67.32 

65.37 
66.67 
67.39 

65.42 
68.18 
67.98 

65.73 
65.77 

64.45 
64.84 



1 Reported annually in the Live Stock Journal and Agricultural 
Oazette, Loudon. 



368 



Feeds and Feeding. 



This same problem has been worked out by Stewart, ^ who sum- 
marizes the records of eight annual exhibits at the American Fat- 
Stock Show, Chicago, as follows: 

Age and rate of gain of animals exMMted at the American Fat-StocJc 
Show, Chicago, 1878-S5 — Stewart. 



Number of animals. 


Age. 


Average 
weight. 


Gain per 
day. 


30 


Days. 

297 

612 

943 

1,283 


Lbs. 

780 
1,334 
1,639 
1,938 


Lbs. 
2 63 


152 


2 18 


14.5 


1 74 


133 


1 51 







The above shows that choice cattle fed for exhibition made an 
average daily gain of 2.63 pounds up to 297 days of age; after 
this the gain gradually fell off with increasing age, until when the 
animals averaged 1,283 days of age, the rate of gain for the whole 
lieriod was only 1. 51 pounds daily. 

The point under consideration is more strongly brought out in 
the following table, ^ which shows the gains by periods: 

Gain of steers exhibited at American Fat-StocJc Shoiv, by periods — 

Stewart. 



Period. 



First period.... 
Second period 
Third period.. 
Fourth jjeriod 



Length 


Average 


of 


gain per 


period. 


head. 


Days. 


Lbs. 


297 


780 


315 


554 


331 


305 


340 


299 



Average 
daily gain 
perhc'ad. 



Lbs. 

2.63 
1.76 

.92 
.83 



The table shows that up to 297 days the cattle made an average 
daily gain (including birth weight) of 2.C3 pounds, while for the 
final period of 340 days there was a gain of only .88 pounds daily 
per head. The gradual decrease in the ability of the steer to 
lay on flesh is apparent to every one upon a little thouglit. There 
must come a time in the life history of the animal when there is 
no increase in weight no matter what amount of food is consumed: 



^ Feeding Animals, 3d ed., App. 



2 Loe. cit. 



Factors in Steer Feeding. 



369 



all the animal can or will then eat constitutes the food of sup- 
port, or is wasted. (595-6) 

564. Cost of gain increases with age. — We have seen that the 
daily gain possible with steers decreases as the age of the animal 
increases. The results obtained at our Stations and the records 
of the fat- stock shows teach that each pound of gain costs more 
with increasing age, as illustrated in the following table: 

Cost of 100 pounds gain, live weight, with steers of different ages. 



Fat-Stock Show, '82.1 
Fat-Stock Show, '83.. 
Michigan Station^.... 
Wisconsin Station^*... 
Massachusetts Sta- 
tion* 



1-12 months old. 12-24 months old 24-36 months old 



No. of 
ani- 
mals. 



9 

6 

10 

16 



Cost of 
food. 



P4.03 
3.70 

1.87 
4.20 



No. of 
ani- 
mals. 



5 

4 

10 

11 

2 



Cost of 
food. 



$7.98 
8.12 
7.37 
6.13 

7.49 



No. of 
ani- 
mals. 



10 

2 



Cost of 
food. 



$12.54 



9.57 



12.38 



1 Kept. 111. Bd. Agr., 1884. » Bui. 44. » Kept. 1886. -» Kept. 1891. 

The table shows that in every instance the cost of gain with the 
steer during the first twelve months of growth is less than for 
later periods. At the Fat-Stock Show for 1882 the feed for 100 
pounds of gain with steers up to twelve months cost $4.03; between 
twelve and twenty-four months it was $7.98, while between twenty- 
four and thirty-six months the cost reached $12. 54. 

565. Cost of grain increases with length of fattening period. — 

Other conditions being equal, the longer the fattening period the 

larger the quantity of feed required to produce a given gain. 

This is brought out by Georgeson, of the Kansas Station, ^ who 

found the grain required for 100 pounds of gain with fattening 

steers for different periods to be as follows: 

Feed for Increase of 

100 lbs. gain. feed required. 

730 pounds of grain. 
807 pounds of grain. 
840 pounds of grain. 
931 pounds of grain. 
927 pounds of grain 



Up to 56 days the steers required... 
Up to 84 days the steei-s retiuired... 
Up to 112 days tlie steers required... 
Up to 140 days the steers required... 
Up to 168 days the steers required... 
Up to 182 days the steers required... 1000 pounds of grain 

1 Bui. 34. 

24 



10 percent. 
15 per cent. 
23 per cent. 
27 per cent. 
37 per cent. 



370 Feeds and Feeding. 

We learn by the preceding data that while at first only 730 
pounds of grain were required for 100 pounds of gain, for the 
whole six-months period over 1,000 pounds were required. The 
increase of feed percentagely is shown in the last column. It 
begins with 10 per cent, and increases to 37 per cent. The heavy 
cost of thoroughly fattening the steer and the importance of 
selling at the earliest possible date are here made plain. (80, 
594, 847) 

566. Feed for 100 pounds gain during fattening. — By consulting 
the tables in the preceding chapter the student can ascertain the 
feed requirements of steers while fattening. The grain in addi- 
tion to roughage required for 100 pounds of gain will be found to 
range from 400 to 1, 500 pounds. This wide range of requirements 
can but excite keen interest among students of stock management. 
The lowest amounts stated are for results at the Texas Station; 
here the steers were all of light weight though quite mature, and 
it is probable they were very thin in flesh at the beginning of the 
feeding i^eriod, so that a part of the increased weight was due to 
a natural filling- up process. The feeding period, too, was short. 
AYhere as much as 1,500 pounds of grain were required for 100 
pounds of gain, it was for a six-months feeding period, with corn 
only for concentrates, and the animals were well fattened. 

In general, taking the available data we have presented for the 
basis, it may be stated that about 1,000 pounds of grain will be re- 
quired for 100 pounds of gain with well-fattened steers, on the aver- 
age, besides 500 pounds of coarse food in the shape of hay, stover, 
etc. Steers in thin flesh, those fed for short periods only, and lots 
handled under unusually favorable conditions will give the re- 
quired gain for a considerably less amount of grain than just stated, 
while those fed for long periods may require 50 per cent. more. 
(757,875) 

567. Dry matter required for 100 pounds of gain. — Thorne^ sum- 
marizes the results of feeding trials at Stations in eight states with 
132 steers, and finds that 1,023 pounds of dry matter were re- 
quired for each 100 pounds of gain. 

Lawes and Gilbert^ tell us that from 12 to 13 pounds of dry 



» Bui. 60, Ohio Expt. Sta. 

2 Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. V. 



Factors in Steer Feeding. 



371 



substance are required for each pound of increase, live weight, 
with fattening steers. The feeding trials at many of our Stations 
have usually covered only short periods, and these, as we have 
seen, are favorable to heavy gains for feed consumed. This being 
true, the figures given by Lawes and Gilbert should hold standard 
for the present at least. 

568. Cost of 100 pounds gain with fattening steers. — The cost 
of the gain made by steers will vary according to the section of 
country in which the feeding is carried on. In the statements 
which follow, the current market prices for feed at the point of 
feeding are used. 

At the Massachusetts Station i the cost of feed for each 100 
pounds increase, live weight, of steers was found to be $10.58. 
This high cost is representative of conditions prevailing in the 
Eastern States, where feeding stuffs are much higher priced than 
in the great agricultural districts of the West. (812) 

At the Kansas Station, with 20 range steers three years old 
past, fed for 182 days, Georgeson^ secured the results shown in 
the following table: 



Amount of feed and cost of same for 100 pounds of gain with range 
steers fed six months — Kansas Station. 



Feed given. 


Cost of 

food per 

head. 


Daily 

gain per 

head. 


Gain in 

182 days 

per 

head. 


Grain 

for 
100 lbs. 
gain. 


Hay or 

stover 

for 100 

lbs. 

gain. 


Cost for 

100 lbs. 

gain. 


Lot I. 
Corn meal, oil meal, 
shorts, bran and 
tame hay 


$31.00 
21.11 

20.85 

25.20 


Lbs. 

2.4 
1.47 

1.56 

1.72 


Lbs. 

436 

268 

284 
313 


Lbs. 

1,000 
1,334 

1,410 

1,530 


Lbs. 

320 
350 

470 

280 


$7.11 

7.87 

7 34 


Lot II. 

Corn meal, stover.. 
Lot III. 
Ear corn, stover, 
fed in barn 


Lot IV. 
Ear corn, stover, 
fed in yard 


8 05 







1 Rept. 1894. 

2 Bui. 34. 



372 



Feeds and Feeding. 



If we include all charges — interest, taxes, labor, feed and risk — 
it will be found that one hundred pounds of gain made during fat- 
tening, by well-finished steers, cost from eight to ten dollars at 
the West and from ten to twelve dollars at the East. 

At the Iowa Station, ^ Wilson and Curtiss fed 18 steers of nine 
dififerent breeds with results as follows: 

Cost of feed toith steers during three feeding periods of 92 days 
ea^h — Iowa Station. 



Date. 


Kind of feed. 


Gain per 

head per 

day. 


Cost of 

feed per 

100 lbs. 

gain. 


March to May... 


Lot I-II. 
Corn meal, oil meal, hay and 
roots 


Lbs. 

2.48 
2.32 
2.03 

3.26 

2.8 


$5.93 


June to Aug 


Lot I. 
Corn meal, clover pasture..., 


4 31 


Lot II. 
Oil meal, clover pasture 


6.21 


Oct. to Dec 


Lot I. 
Snapped com, corn meal, oil 
meal, roots and hay 


5.92 




Lot II. 
Snapped corn, corn meal, oil 
meal, roots and hay 


6.38 









These trials are representative of conditions in the Mississippi 
Valley. We observe that the lowest cost was $4. 31 for 100 pounds 
of gain, in Iowa, with steers getting corn meal on clover pasture. 
The highest cost was $8.05 for steers at the Kansas Station getting 
ear corn. 

TIT. Value of Breed in Beef Making. 

569. Amount of feed consumed. — Every person with experi- 
ence in the cattle business concedes that ''blood tells" in beef 
production. Where there is such unanimity of expression the 
fact must exist, but the reasons given are not always the same 
and so are worthy of careful examination. 

Occasionally the claim is advanced that well-bred cattle eat 
less than natives or scrubs. This opinion is not generally held 
by owners of pure-bred or high-grade stock, who know that their 



1 Bui. 20. 



Factors in Steer Feeding. 



373 



animals when gaining rapidly are hearty feeders, though when 
mature they require only a small amount of provender for main- 
tenance. Nothing in the tables given in this chapter warrants the 
statement that pure-bred or high-grade cattle of the beef breeds 
are small eaters. 

570. Less feed for a given gain. — The second claim, and a 
more reasonable one, is that cattle bred specifically for beef give 
better returns for a given amount of feed than those bred for milk 
production or those of promiscuous or low breeding. This claim 
is quite generally advanced by stockmen, and is usually conceded 
without calling for proof. 

A few Stations have undertaken the difficult task of testing 
the comparative merits of the several breeds. While the number 
of animals tested is not large, by combining all the data at hand 
we get some light on the question though we cannot hope to en- 
tirely settle it. Figures are given in the next table from trials at 
five Stations where pure-bred and native steers were fed in com- 
parison for periods varying from ninety-two days to eighteen 
months: 



Grain required for 100 pounds of gain with steers of several breeds 
as found at various Experiment Stations. 



station. 


Length 

of 
period. 


Age at 
begin- 
ning. 


g 
o 
Si 
J. 

u 

% 

02 


■2 


a 

SB 

c 

< 


•6 
t 


o 

"3 
O 


d 
o 
>• 
(a 
Q 




d 

o 

w 


1^ 

01 

2 


1 


Iowa (a) _ 


92 days.. 

6 mos... 

1 yr 

1 yr 

18 mos... 

1 yr 

161 days.. 
18 mos... 


2yrs... 
2 yrs... 
lyr.... 

2 yrs... 
lyr.... 
lyr.... 

3 yrs... 
1 yr.... 


lbs. 

659 
9a5 

557 
796 
493 
597 

777 
706 


lbs. 
874 

"561 
916 
552 
793 


lbs. 

744 
947 


lbs. 
753 


lbs. 
977 


lbs. 
663 


lbs. 
712 


lbs. 
870 


lbs. 
861 


lbs. 










581 
763 
612 
553 


477 
755 
478 
495 




565 
939 
6&5 
686 


557 
807 














"698 






Ontario (/i 


4^1 




876 


Missouri {h) 


740: 


661 














ff^l 




1 — 

















(o) Bui. 20. 
(e) Bui. 69. 



(6) Bui. 28. 
(/) Rept. 1892, 



(c) Bui. 44. 
{g) Bui. 51. 



(d) Bui. 44. 
(h) Bui. 24, 



There were two steers in each Michigan trial and in the first 
Iowa trial. In the second Iowa trial there were ten Short- 
horn and ten Angus steers; in the Ontario trial there was only 
one of each; in the Kansas trial there were six Short-horns and 



374 Feeds and Feeding. 

six Natives; in the Missouri trial there were six Short-horns, three 
Herefords, four Angus and four Natives. The student should not 
take averages of the trials in drawing conclusions, since the con- 
ditions at the different Stations varied greatly, but they should 
be studied separately. The tests cover periods ranging from 92 
days to 18 months. The least amount of grain (477 pounds) for 
100 pounds of gain was with Devon steers, and the largest amount 
(977 pounds) was with Galloways. 

Eeviewing the data of the table it will be seen that while we can 
single out cases where the beef-bred steer has produced 100 pounds 
t)f gain with less feed than the dairy-bred or native steer, yet the 
largest amount of feed consumed by any animal for a given gain 
also stands charged to one of the beef type. We are thus unable 
from the data at hand to show that a pound of feed goes further 
in making gain with beef-bred animals than with those not 
specially designed for that purpose. These figures are a sur- 
prise to the writer, as they must be to the reader; but as they 
represent practically all the work done at the Stations to date 
they should stand for the present. 

571. Early maturity. — The most common claim for superiority in 
the beef breeds is that animals so bred mature earlier than others. 
Consulting the figures given in the next table we find that steers 
of the strictly dairy breeds reached as heavy weight as did several 
of the beef- breed representatives. Holstein steers made substan- 
tially as large daily gains as did any of the others, and Jersey and 
Native steers rivaled the Devons. So far as data from the Stations 
go, we have no evidence that beef-bred animals make more rapid 
growth than do others. The claim of early maturity, then, is not 
substantiated by the data at hand if daily gain in live weight is 
the sole measure used. The degree of maturity of the animal is 
not measured entirely, however, by its weight, so that this divis- 
ion of the subject cannot be considered as covered by the data 
presented in regard to daily gain. 

572. Dressed weight of carcass. — This topic naturally follows 
that just presented, and fortunately, from the experiments last 
quoted, we have data at command. The animals used in the 
several tests at the Stations were slaughtered and the weight of the 



Factors in Steer Feeding. 



olO 



carcasses reported. Gathering the data into a table we have the 
following: 

Dressed weight of carcass of different breeds of cattle — Various Sta- 
tions. 



Breed. 



No. of 
ani- 


No. of 
sta- 


Av. 


Av. live 


Daily 
gain 


mals. 


tions. 


age. 


weight. 


trom 
birth. 






Days. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


11 


4 


983 


1,515 


1.54 


2 


1 


1,000 


1,520 


1.52 


16 


4 


976 


1,493 


1.53 


2 


1 


1,000 


1,570 


1.57 


26 


5 


1,011 


1,510 


1.50 


6 


3 


923 


1,503 


1.62 


7 


3 


1,021 


1,376 


1.35 


1 


1 


1,095 


1,320 


1.20 


1 


1 


1,021 


1,625 


1.59 


6 


3 


937 


1,469 


1.57 


3 


2 


1,058 


1,440 


1.36 


9 


3 


1,038 


1,2.59 


1.26 



Limits 

of dressed 

weight. 



Av. 

dressed 
weight. 



Hereford 

Eed Polled 

Aberdeen-Angus 

Swiss 

Short-horn 

Galloway 

Devon 

Ayrshire 

Sussex 

Holstein 

Jersey 

Native 



Per cent. 

63.0-68.0 

63.8-66.5 

63.2-69.0 

64.8 

62.1-^8 

62.0-66.7 

62.5-65.8 



60.6-64.4 
58.7-63.9 
57.9-61.5 



Per ct. 

65.0 
65.2 
64.8 
64.8 
64.4 
63.9 
63.6 
63.3 
63.0 
62.6 
60.5 
60.2 



The data referring to live weight at the time of slaughter and 
daily gain from birth have already been discussed; let us now 
consider the dressed weights of cattle of the several breeds. The 
Eed Polls give the largest percentage of dressed carcass to live 
weight, but the figures are the average for two animals only, 
and the best of these is lower than the best of the representatives 
of five other breeds. Were as many animals included as there 
are of the Short-horns, for example, they would no doubt rank 
lower in the list. (See Article 563. ) 

The last column of the table is one of great significance and 
worthy of study by all interested in the problem under discussion. 
We find that steers of the so-called beef breeds yield from 64 
to 65 per cent, of dressed carcass to live weight, while N'ative 
steers and those of the dairy breeds dress from 60 to 63 per 
cent. Jersey and Native steers dress the lowest. On the aver- 
age, eleven Hereford steers fed and slaughtered at four Experi- 
ment Stations yielded eight per cent, more dressed carcass to 
live weight than did nine Native steers fed at three Experiment 
Stations. The weights of the native and dairy-bred steers are so 
great that we may be sure they were fully fis mature and as well 



376 



Feeds and Feeding. 



fatted as their competitors. Here is the first marked difference 
between beef-bred and other cattle. 

573. Percentage of loose tallow to dressed weight. — At the 

Iowa Station, ^ "Wilson and Curtiss found a larger amount of fat 
about the internal organs of steers of the dairy breeds than about 
the viscera of animals of the beef breeds, as is shown by the fol- 
lowing table: 

Dressed weight of carcass and " loose ^^ tallow of steers of various 
breeds — Iowa Station. 



Breed. 



Short-horn 
Hereford.... 
Red Poll.... 
Galloway... 

Angus 

Devon 

Swiss 

Holstein.... 
Jersey 



Average 
dressed 
weight. 


Loose 


Per cent, of loose 


tallow. 


tallow to beef. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




1,092 


145 


13.3 


1,022 


129 


12.6 


990 


12.1 


12.6 


1,088 


147 


13.5 


1,137 


156.5 


13.8 


815 


122.5 


15.0 


1,017 


119 


11.7 


862 


155 


17.9 


880 


165.5 


18.8 



The above table presents most important data. The Short-horn 
steers dressing about 1,100 pounds yielded 145 pounds, or 13.3 
per cent., of loose tallow. Jersey steers averaging 880 pounds 
yielded over 165 pounds, or 18.8 per cent. , of loose tallow. These 
figures are corroborated by findings in the same direction at the 
Michigan'^ and Missouri Stations. ^ Commenting on the character 
of the carcasses of steers of the various breeds slaughtered at the 
Michigan Station, Daveni)ort wrote: "Note the excess of rough 
tallow in Walton (a Holstein steer) as compared with the others. 
Walton was ' all cow, ' as the saying goes, and the fat about his 
kidneys was astonishing." 

From these data we may conclude that there is a specific dif 
ference between the beef and dairy breeds in the disposition of 
fat in the body. It appears that the beef representatives, when 
fattening, place a large portion of the fat between the muscular 
fibers of the tissues. Steers of the dairy breeds, on the other 

> Bui. 20. * Bui. 24. 3 Bui. 69. 



Factors in Steer Feeding. 377 

hand, deposit much fat about the intestines and the kidneys. 
Fat intimately commingled with the muscular fibers of the tis- 
sues renders such meat tender and toothsome; when placed in 
separate masses anywhere in the body, and especially within 
the body cavity, it has a low value as a merchantable article. 
While fat stored as in the dairy breeds may be best placed for 
animals designed for milk production, such disposition is certainly 
against their usefulness in beef production. In this distinction 
we have a remarkable example of the effort toward specialization 
in the beef and dairy breeds, and the lesson is important and far- 
leaching. Here, then, is the second distinct characteristic of the 
beef-bred steer. 

574. Proportion of valuable parts in carcass. — Georgeson of the 
Kansas Station, ^ and Wilson and Curtiss of the Iowa Station, * 
closed feeding trials with breed representatives by forwarding the 
animals to Swift & Co., Packers, Chicago and Kansas City, for 
slaughter. The accompanying table presents the proportion of 
the several parts yielded by the dressed carcasses: 

Percentage of the various cuts in the dressed carcmses of Solstein, Na- 
tive and Short-horn steers — Kansas and Iowa Experiment Stations. 





Kansas. 


Iowa. 


■■ 


Short- 
horn. 


Native. 


Short- 
horn. 


Holstein. 


Loins 


16.6 
9.6 
22.9 
20.6 
13.5 
6.1 
10.7 


17.0 
10.1 
22.4 
20!8 
12.8 
5.8 
11.1 


17.1 

9.9 

22.9 

21.1 

15.4 

5.7 

7.9 


16.6 


Ribs 


10.2 


Rounds 


23.3 


< 'liucks 


21.9 


Plates 


14.2 


Shanks 


6.4 


Minor cheap parts 


7 4 







So far as the figures go, there is nothing to show the superiority 
of the beef breeds in yielding a larger percentage of high-priced 
<'uts. Of course, since the percentage of dressed carcass to live 
weight is greater in the beef breeds, they actually yield somewhat 
more pounds of valuable parts than the non-beef breeds. But 
such data are not final on the point in question. The thickness 



1 Bui. 51. 



2 Bui. 20. 



378 



Feeds and Feeding. 



of the flesh over the carcass, which is one factor of its worth in the 
market, is not indicated by percentages of the several parts. A 
thin-fleshed steer will not cut up percentagely much different from 
one that furnishes thick cuts of meat. 

575. Judgment of the market.— Difference in quality is quickly 
noted in the market and prices vary accordingly. The eighteen 
steers representing nine breeds fattened by the Iowa Station, when 
shipped to Chicago, were passed upon by a committee of three 
stock buyers, with the results shown in the following table: 

Value jilaced by experts on steers of nine breeds sold by the Iowa 
Experiment Station at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago. 



Breeds. 



Hereford 

Bhort-horn 

Galloway 

Aberdeen-Angus 

Red Polled 

Swiss 

Devon 

Holstein 

Jersey 



Average 


Experts' 


live 


valuation 


weight. 


per cwt. 


1,52.5 lbs. 


$6.62^ 


1,660 lbs. 


6.37^ 


1,635 lbs. 


6.37i 


1 , 72.5 lbs. 


6. 37 J 


1,. 520 lbs. 


6.2.5 


1,570 lbs. 


6.00 


1,290 lbs. 


5.75 


1,410 lbs. 


5.00 


1,430 lbs. 


4.50 



Here is a difference between the highest and lowest valuations* 
of $2.12 per hundred weight, or about 32 per cent. 

In the slaughter test of the Kansas Short-horns and Natives 
before referred to, the loins of the best Shorthorns were rated at 
18 cents per pound, while those of the Natives were placed as low 
as 14 cents. There is not this difference in actual food value 
between the carcasses or cuts, but the exactions of the market are 
all-powerful and must be recognized as final in this discussion. 

576. Quality. — Beyond that which can be expressed in figures 
or stated percentagely lies that indefinable something described 
by the word ''quality," which enters into this as into all other 
objects of barter. No one can compare a bunch of well-fed beef- 
bred steers with one rei^resenting the dairy breeds or natives with- 
out being impressed by a difference not measured by the scales. 
Speaking of the breed tests, "Wilson and Curtiss write: ''The 
carcasses of the dairy breeds lacked in thickness of cuts, and the 



Factors in Steer Feeding. 379 

marbling of the fat and lean was not equal to that of the others 
(beef breeds)," Georgeson, reviewing his results, writes: . . . 
'^The Short-horns gave the best returns, not simply because the 
gross weight of their carcasses was greater than that of the scrubs, 
but also because their meat was esteemed better by experts in the 
packing-house who were asked to judge of the quality and assiga 
prices." Of the Ontario native, Shaw wrote: ''There was a 
lack of thickness of carcass throughout, the deficiency in depth of 
rib and loin being very noticeable, and the absence of what may 
be termed fleshiness was conspicuous." 

577. In conclusion. — In our study of the value of specific breed- 
ing for beef production we have found, as shown in the preceding 
articles, that the steer bred for beef does not consume less feed 
than do others of the same weight, nor does he necessarily reach a 
given weight in less days, though generally such is the case. Nor 
do our figures show that 100 pounds of gain, live weight, can be 
made by the beef steer with less feed than other cattle require. 

The first specific difference io found in the marked superiority 
of true beef cattle in yielding a larger percentage of dressed weight 
to live carcass. A second difference of deep significance is in 
the disposition of the fat, the beef steer placing this surplus 
material where it serves its highest purpose as human food — 
among the muscular fibers of the tissues, — while the dairy -bred 
animal deposits it in quantity about the viscera. 

While if we divide the dressed carcass into the several parts 
required by the trade we cannot show that the proportion of these 
varies in cattle of different breeds, yet the thickness of the flesh 
of these parts is certainly in favor of the beef breeds. 

These differences, with others which cannot be distinctly speci- 
fied coming under the term ''quality," combine to make the beef 
steer what his name indicates — an animal specifically designed 
for the most favorable production of the best meat. 

m. Other Findings. 

578. Dressed weight of cattle. — The percentage of dressed 
carcass to live weight of cattle varies according to several condi- 
tions, the leading of which are: 1, the age of the animal j 2, the 



380 



Feeda and Feeding. 



degree to which it has been fattened; and 3, the breed or beef 
character. This last point has already been noted. Let us con- 
sider the other two conditions. 

In studying the effects of age we turn to the records of the 
American Fat-Stock Show^ for the year 1884, which show: 

Slaughter test at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago. 



Age of animals. 



Number 
of ani- 
mals. 



Live 
weight at 
slaughter. 



Weight 

of dressed 

carcass. 



Per cent, of 
dressed car- 
cass to live 
weight. 



Three years and under four.. 
Two years and under three.. 

One year and under two 

Under one year 



10 

11 

6 

1 



Lbs. 

2,025 

1,631 

1,240 

930 



Lbs. 

1,378 

1,089 

789 

562 



67 
66 
63 
60 



Here we find that three-year-old steers dressed 67 per cent, of 
the shrunken live weight of the animal, while those under one year 
gave only 60 per cent, of dressed carcass. The importance of 
maturity on the returns of dressed carcass is here shown. 

The degree of fattening also determines the percentage of valu- 
able parts. In fattening, the weight of the secondary parts of the 
steer is not materially increased; for example, the head, hide, 
hoofs and viscera do not increase much in weight, while the car- 
cass proper weighs more because of the large percentage of fat 
added. Common steers but little fattened may yield no more than 
fifty per cent, of live weight in carcass, dressing away one-half. 

579. Shrinkage due to shipping. — At the Kansas Station,* 
Georgeson found that steers weighing 1,350 pounds shrank from 
9 to 68 pounds per head, the average being 27 pounds, when 
shipped from Manhattan to Kansas City, a distance of about one 
hundred miles. Steers weighing 1,550 pounds, shipped from the 
Iowa Station^ to Chicago, about three hundred miles, shrunk 71.5 
pounds. Steers shipped from the Ohio Station at Wooster* to 
Pittsburg, about one hundred and fifty miles, weighed somewhat 
more Monday, after watering, than at home Saturday before 
watering. 



' Breeder's Gazette, Chicago, 1884, p. 824. » Bui. 39. «• Bui. 20. * Bui. 60. 



CHAPTER XXin. 

COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT. 

I. Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 

580. Indian corn. — Indian corn must continue the great grain 
food for steer fattening in the United States. While we can- 
not vie with England in luxuriance of pasture, the advantage 
given our farmers by the corn plant more than offsets this, and 
places us at the front in beef production. No concentrate is so 
relished by cattle as corn, the kernels of which carry consider- 
able oil, rendering them toothsome and palatable to a degree not 
equaled by other grain. Not only does corn carry oil, but it is 
loaded with starch, likewise a fat-former, thus affording the nu- 
triment needed for filling the tissues of the steer's body with fat, 
rendering the muscles tender and juicy. The success of steer 
feeding in America must depend largely upon the supply of 
Indian corn available for this purpose. 

581. Beef returns per acre of corn. — Stewart^ reports a trial 
conducted by himself with ten steers averaging 1,175 pounds, 
which were fed four measured acres of shock corn estimated to 
yield 40 bushels of grain per acre. The unhusked shock corn 
was run through a feed cutter, and 40 pounds of the mixture, 
with 2 pounds of linseed meal, given daily. The four acres 
of com lasted 70 days, each steer gaining 200 pounds on the aver- 
age in that time. Allowing for the oil meal, the author concludes 
that this corn crop gave a return of 400 pounds of beef per acre, 
which, at five cents per pound for the increase, yields |20 for an 
acre of corn so fed. This is about twice the returns obtained by 
Morrow from an acre of Illinois pasture grazed by yearling steers. 

582. Plain feeding of corn recommended. — The practice, com- 
mon in the corn belt, of supplying unhusked or unground corn to 
steers, has developed the feeling among Eastern feeders that the 

1 Feeding Animals, p. 311. 



382 Feeds and Feeding. 

method is wasteful and could be immensely improved by grinding 
the grain. No one can study the Western situation without be- 
coming impressed with the belief that the better class of these 
feeders are, after all, about right in this practice. Corn is never 
so acceptable to a steer as when unhusked. There is a freshness 
and palatability about an ear of corn wrapt in Nature's covering 
which every steer recognizes and shows by the eagerness with 
which he consumes it. 

Feeding shock corn is a satisfactory practice in many instances, 
for the crop is then handled with the least labor. The fodder 
with its wealth of ears is thrown into long feed racks standing in 
an open lot or under a shed, the steers doing the husking and 
grinding. Some fodder is eaten, and the waste ears and grains 
are eagerly picked up by shotes running with the steers. 

Snapped corn, i. e. , ears severed from the stalks but still wrapt 
in the husks, is successfally used for steer feeding. Husked ear 
corn is extensively fed, though the grains are not so fresh as in 
the two forms named above and are not always so acceptable 
because of another condition, viz., hardness of the grains. Corn 
in the crib exposed to the dry air of the West often becomes very 
hard and the grains injure the mouth of the steer in the process 
of mastication. To avoid this difficulty the ears are chopped or 
broken into pieces or fed after soaking. Soaking does not render 
the grain more digestible, but enables the steer to crush it with 
more ease and often to consume a larger quantity. 

Trials at the Stations show that corn meal gives larger gains 
with steers than the same weight of unground grain. It is prob- 
able also that meal permits of a higher finish with steers than 
unground corn. Practical experience and studies by the Stations 
show that pigs following steers fed corn meal get very little from 
the droppings; not because such droppings are without nutri- 
ment, but rather because the meal in the droppings is in a form 
which cannot be utilized by the pig. 

Eeviewing the subject from the standpoint of experiment and 
practice, the writer is of the opinion that where corn is cheap the 
Western custom of feeding it whole to steers with lively shotes 
following is the most economical, all things considered, if ration- 



Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 383 

ally practiced. In general, directions for feeding cheap corn may 
be summed np by the single statement: Let the feeder supply this 
grain to his cattle in the most inexpensive manner possible so 
long as they consume full rations without difficulty in mastication. 

(536, 538) 

583. Preparing corn for feeding.— Not infrequently the feeder 
must prepare corn for his cattle -the large size of the ears, 
the dryness of the grain, or other conditions rendering some 
treatment necessary. Soaking the corn has already been re- 
ferred to and may often be practiced with advantage. The simplest 
form of reduction is the rather crude but common practice of 
breaking the ears, in the feed box, into three or four pieces, 
using a hatchet. Another satisfactory method of preparation is 
to reduce the ears, with or without husks, to a reasonable degree 
of fineness by running them through a crusher, which breaks the 
cobs into many pieces, cracking some of the kernels. Corn and 
cob meal has been found very satisfactory by feeders, the animals 
not getting '^off feed" so easily as when pure meal is fed. 

As before stated, larger returns can be secured from corn meal 
than from whole grain, but there are several disadvantages 
attendant upon its use. Little or nothing can be gained by pigs 
following steers fed corn meal, and because of its heavy nature 
indigestion and other difficulties commonly attend its use. Corn 
meal should never be fed alone in large quantity, but should 
be diluted or given increased bulk by the addition of bran, oil 
meal or other substance, in which case the dangers incident to its 
use are usually overcome. The claim that toward the close of the 
lattening period corn meal is especially useful in giving more finish 
is probably correct, on the theory that the digestive organs have 
become weakened by the continued feeding of whole corn, and 
their activities are in some measure renewed when the steer is 

given meal. 

The amount of corn to be fed fattening steers and the gain 
made are shown in the preceding chapter. 

584. Bran.— This by-product was at first regarded with favor 
only by dairymen. Gradually the steer feeder is learning its value 
in connection with other grain in the feed box. Because of its 



384 Feeds and Feeding, 

bulky character and its cooling, slightly laxative properties, bran 
is a most excellent dihitent for corn meal, cotton-seed meal and 
other heavy food substances. Where it can be obtained at a rea- 
sonable price, the stockman will iind much satisfaction in mixing 
one-third its weight of bran with com meal. (544) 

585. Oil meal. — Oil meal is an article of great importance in 
the feed lot. The highly carbonaceous Indian corn has the reputa- 
tion of rapidly ''burning up" the digestive tract of the steer 
when fed continuously in large quantity. Oil meal, though an 
exceedingly rich food, is of the opposite nature, and when fed 
in reasonable amount has a cooling and generally beneficial 
effect on the system. The feeder who uses from two to four 
pounds of oil meal a day with corn in any form will be pleased with 
the result. A steer fed oil meal has a glossy coat and a handling 
quality not attained without the use of this feed. (206) This 
quality indicates the value of oil meal for the finishing period in 
steer fattening. The feeder should use oil cake in nut form rather 
than as meal. 

586. Roots. — In steer feeding, roots are valuable, especially in 
the earlier stages, because of their cooling effect and the nutri- 
ment they afford. At first 50 or 60 pounds of roots may be fed 
daily to each steer. As the fattening period progresses, the 
quantity should be diminished to allow the flesh to become firm. 
For steer feeding, roots should always be sliced or pulped. In the 
latter case the pulped mass is mixed with chaffed hay or straw 
and held until the dry forage has become moist and soft The 
mangel is preferred for steer feeding. (325-6, 549) 

587. Silage. — If the stockman desires a cheap, succulent feed 
for his cattle in winter, he will find it in corn silage. The same 
quantity of nutriment that a root crop yields can be produced 
more economically in corn forage stored in the shai^e of silage, 
and this article can be fed with satisfaction to steers during the 
early stages of fattening. At first as much as 40 or 50 pounds 
of silage may be given daily to each steer; when the full grain- 
feeding period arrives let the allowance be cut down to 25 or 30 
pounds per day. A limited use of this feed will keep the system 
cool and the appetite vigorous. (550) 



Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 385 

588. Turning to pasture. — There are two theories in regard to 
the proper time for turning steers to grass, each with points of 
advantage. It is generally advocated by American writers that 
stock be kept in the yard until the pastures furnish an abundance of 
nutritious grass. Often when stock is turned on such pastures the 
ration of the feed-lot is at once cut off, in which case the change 
is so violent as to give the cattle a serious set-back. Under the 
other system the cattle are turned to pasture as soon as the grass 
begins to grow, and while the springing blades are still watery 
and furnish little nutriment. The lack of feed in the pasture 
forces the stock to rely on the feed rack to satisfy hunger. While 
the first grass yields little nutriment, it still has an effect on the 
digestive system and prepares the animal gradually for the change 
from dry feed to the rich grass which soon follows. It is a well- 
known fact that stock shrink badly when changed from feed- 
lot to pasture, and it is possible that the practice of turning 
early to grass, at the same time keeping up heavy feeding, is 
better than holding cattle longer on dry food only and then shift- 
ing at once to full pasture. In any event, let grain and some 
dry forage be still offered the cattle when first turned to grass. 

589. Large versus small pastures. — The subject of large or 
small pastures is frequently discussed. The majority of experi- 
enced American feeders favor a single large range rather than 
numerous small pastures. Grasses, both in variety and quality, 
are never quite the same over the whole of a large pasture, and 
cattle soon detect the slight differences and satisfy their desire for 
variety by ranging from one spot to another. In large pastures 
the habits of the animals become regular, and it is interesting to 
study their movements. The herd will be found in the morning 
on one side of the valley, feeding on the more abundant vegeta- 
tion; later as the sun's heat increases they appear on the hill- 
side, where there is a movement of air and where the grasses are 
shorter but more nutritious; while at noon they are to be seen 
resting in the shade at still another point. This regularity in 
grazing certainly conduces to comfort and quiet and is of impor- 
tance to profitable returns. Where the pastures are cut up into 
several lots, the fresh bite of rank herbage which comes with each 
change leads to irregularity and unrest, thus reducing the gains. 

25 



386 Feeds and Feeding. 

590. The possibilities of pastures. — Sir J. B. Lawes^ reports 
a pasture of 14 acres in Leicestershire, England, on which 17 oxen 
were grazed without artificial food throughout the season, return- 
ing from 500 to 600 pounds of increase, live weight, per acre. 

From Morrow's trials (554-5) we are led to estimate that in 
the Mississippi Valley, on the richer farming lands, we may look 
for about 200 pounds of gain with steers from each acre of tame 
pasture. This gives land capable of these results a value of from 
fifty to one hundred dollars per acre for that jjurpose at a reason- 
able rate of interest on the money invested. 

591. Grain feeding on pastures. — The writer once heard J. D. 
Gillett, the great Illinois steer feeder of the last generation, say 
that he could not afford to fatten steers in winter. His cattle 
were fattened in the summer and fall, subsisting in winter in stalk- 
fields and on the dry grasses of the pastures. In summer they 
luxuriated in rich old blue-grass pastures where the feed boxes 
always stood loaded with grain. The great success attained by this 
feeder is sufficient evidence of the wisdom of his practice with 
the conditions and markets then prevailing — good prices for 
well-fattened cattle. 

Wallace, ^ in summarizing the experience of numerous cattle 
feeders in the West, writes: ''The general opinion seems to be 
that good steers fed grain on grass will gain from 75 to 100 
pounds per month, and that steers on good pasture will, during 
the two or three most favorable grazing months, gain almost as 
much on grass alone. . . . From all the facts I have been able 
to obtain, I am inclined to the opinion that in general there is not 
much money in feeding grain to steers that are on full pasture of 
the best kind." 

Where pastures carry a sufficient growth of grass for full feed 
even during mid-summer, it is usually best to allow the cattle to 
subsist entirely on natural herbage, for this is of low cost, and 
animals relying upon their own exertions gather their food vigor- 
ously and willingly, wasting no time in standing idly waiting 
for food. Where the pastures run short in mid-summer, and the 
lack of food, together with flies and heat, are cutting down gains 
already made, feeding with grain should be practiced. 

1 Kept. Ont. Agr. Col., 1886. 

« Live Stock Keport, Chicago, June 3, 1892. 



Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. '387 

Where steers are grained on pasture, the feeder begins in the 
spring by supplying about one peck of corn per head, increasing 
the amount to fully one-third of a bushel daily by mid-summer 
for grown steers. The corn is dealt out once a day in a feed box 
in the lot. Pigs should follow to save the waste. Instead of 
giving corn only, it is better, when possible, to substitute two or 
three pounds of oil meal or bran for the same weight of corn. 
The feed should always be supplied at the same hour. Where 
grain is fed, not over half the usual area of pasture land is re- 
quired. Pasture-fed steers eat about as much grain as if confined 
to the feed lot. (555) 

592. Water. — It goes without saying that the fattening steer 
must be supplied with sufficient water to slake his thirst, for 
otherwise he would grow restless and fail to make proper gain. 
No effort should be made, however, to induce him to consume 
large quantities of water, which is considered to have a somewhat 
depleting effect on the body tissues. (73) Many good feeders 
insist that there be water before the cattle at all times, and usu- 
ally this is the more convenient arrangement. If water is supplied 
but once a day, care should be taken that all animals have oppor- 
tunity for a good fill. 

593. Salting. — Animals fed large quantities of nutritious food, 
such as fattening steers receive, show a strong desire for salt, and 
this craving should be satisfied by a reasonable supply. The 
excessive use of salt leads to a heavy consumption of water, 
thereby increasing the flow of urine — a result not desirable. 
(72-3, 85) Kuhn^ recommends one ounce of salt per day, for a 
steer weighing 1,000 pounds, at the beginning of the fattening 
period, one and one-third of an ounce at the middle, and one and 
two-thirds of an ounce at the close. The form of salt to be sup- 
plied to cattle, granular or rock, is a matter of convenience with 
the stockman. 

594. What fattening the steer means. — It is important to have 
a clear knowledge of what the fattening process is. The grown 
steer, with framework of bone overlaid with muscles and encased 

* Ernabr. d. Rindviehes, 9th ed., p. 325. 



388 Feeds and Feeding, 

in hide, requires a certain amount of nutriment for mere exist- 
ence. To supply this only, enables him to continue existence, 
but does not appease his appetite, which craves still more food. 
If provender beyond the requirements for maintenance is supplied, 
more or less of the surplus is converted into fat and stowed away 
among the muscular tissues of the body, in the bones, under the 
hide and about the viscera. This fat is fuel in the animal economy, 
for which Nature shows an eagerness by manufacturing and lay- 
ing up a certain amount against the time of need. Impelled by a 
hearty appetite, the steer at first gains rapidly in fat, gratifying 
the feeder in the increase reported by the scales. After fat- 
tening has progressed a few months, the appetite of the steer 
loses its keen edge, and he shows a daintiness when taking his 
food not at first exhibited. If placed on the scales from time to 
time, he shows smaller and smaller gains. Every pound of in- 
crease now requires more pounds of feed than at first. The fat- 
tening process may be likened to inflating a bicycle tire or a foot- 
ball with air. The operation is rapid and easy at first, but be- 
comes more and more difficult until the limit is reached. Finally, 
the steer, though consuming a fair amount of feed, shows no gain 
whatever. He has been fattened to his limit, and though he may 
be held there for a time he will soon begin to retrograde, just as 
a ripened apple grows poorer in quality after perfection has been 
reached. The feeder, recognizing this, should aim to fatten his 
cattle rapidly, and, as soon as they are acceptably fat, dispose oi 
them without delay. To continue fattening longer than demanded 
by the market, or to hold cattle when once fattened, adds greatly 
to their cost. (565) 

595. Cost of feeding increases with age. — Excluding birth 
weight, the steer maintains a practically uniform rate of gain 
until he becomes two years old. While this is true in relation to 
gain in weight, we have shown that the cost of producing the gain 
in the second year is about double that for the first, and for the 
third the cost is about three times that of the first year. Eecog- 
nizing these facts, the stockman who grows the cattle he feeds 
should place them on the market at as early a date as possible, 
other conditions being equal. (563^) 



Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 389 

596. Cost of finished steer. — Anything from the lips or pen of 

that king of feeders of the last generation, J. D. Gillett, should 
be preserved. Here is Mr. Gillett' s estimate of the cost of grow- 
ing a steer up to thirty -six months of age:^ 

Cost of steer twelve months old. 

Value of calf at birth $3 00 

Expenses of dam of calf, chargeable to calf for one year as fol- 
lows: eight per cent, interest on $50, value of cow 4 00 

Keep of yearling and feed of cow 12 months 12 25 ( 

Insurance on cow 1 00 

Risk of failure of cow to breed 1 75 

Loss of calves by death, etc 1 00 

No corn fed up to 12 months. 

Value of pasture and keep up to 12 months 6 00 

Total 29 00 

Weight of calf at 12 months, 700 pounds, at five cents 35 00 

Profit at 12 months of age 6 00 

< Cost from twelve to twenty-four months of age. 

Value of steer at 12 months of age $35 00 

Value of shock com, 110 bushels, at 35 cents 38 50 

Pasture 12 to 24 months 3 00 

Interest and risk 2 80 

Total 79 30 

Less 500 pounds pork made on droppings of steer, at five cents. ... 25 00 

Net cost 12 to 24 months 54 30 

Weight of steer at 24 months 1,600 pounds, at six and a half cents 104 00 

Profit at 12 months of age 49 70 

Cost from twenty-four to thirty-six months of age. 

Value of steer at 24 months of age $104 00 

Value of shock com consumed in entire year, 125 bus., at 35 cents 43 75 

Pasture, May 1 to Nov. 1 4 00 

Interest and risk 8 32 

Total 160 07 

Less 500 pounds pork at five cents, made on droppings of steer... 25 00 

Cost at 36 months of age 135 07 

Weight at 36 months of age, 2,200 pounds, at seven cents 154 00 

Profit at 36 months of age 18 93 

i Fugitive paper copied into Farmers' Review, Chicago, Dec. 7, 1882, 



390 Feeds and Feeding. 

In those days prices for grain, interest rates, and especially 
prices of fat cattle, were liigher tlian at present, and the stndent 
in using the figures must make allowance for the changes wrought 
by time: the lesson taught still stands. 

597. Modern market demands. — Some readers will recall the 
period when it was not considered advisable to fatten a steer until 
he was five years old; a much larger number will recollect the 
early exhibits at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago, where 
prizes were given for ''big steers" often five or more years old 
and weighing up to two tons. The long-legged, raw-boned creat- 
ures that competed for premiums in those days are a thing of the 
past, though there is still room for improvement. The butcher 
now calls for ''handy " steers, ranging from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds 
in weight. These are well described in the following, taken from 
Bell's Messenger ;! "The winner now has to be short-legged, 
broad and deep, full in the flank, well sprung ribs, and good 
twist. His bottom lines should be as straight as his top lines, 
and as wide, and he should have no thick, patchy fat anywhere. 
Experience has shown that thick-bodied, short-legged steers, 
with full flanks, pay the feeder best, and give best profit to the 
butcher. Big ones are no longer needed. Small sizes are best, 
with plenty of quality, and with youth on their side the meat is 
juicy and tender. Age is counted in months now, instead of years, 
and the change is for the better." 

To produce steers which meet these requirements a high degree 
of skill and judgment must be exercised in breeding and feeding. 
From the tables we are taught the important lesson that less feed 
is required to bring animals to the required standard because of 
the smaller size of the individuals when fattened. High skill in 
breeding and feeding thus oppose the plainer breeding and slower 
feeding of former times. 

598. Early maturity. — What can be accomplished in the way of 
early maturity is illustrated by results obtained by Mr. W. A. 
Harris, of Linwood, Kansas. ^ Mr. Harris fed pure-bred and 
grade Short-horn calves, coming in December, January and Feb- 

* Quoted in Live Stock Kept., Chicago, July 19, 1895. 

* Breeder's Gazette, Cliicago, 1890, p. 437. 



Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 391 

ruary, until tlie following December, at which time they averaged 

eleven months old. These calves received most of their dam's 

milk until six or seven months old. Mr. Harris calculates that 

they consumed — 

20 bushels of ear corn, worth $5 

1,000 pounds of bran, worth 6 

300 pounds of oil meal, worth 3 

Total costof grain $14 

In addition they had pastures and what hay they would eat, 

valued at $4. These calves weighed from 910 to 920 pounds 

each at eleven months and sold from $3.80 to $5 per hundred, 

which returns are certainly satisfactory when the short time for 

turning the capital involved is considered. All farmers are not 

in position to follow such forcing methods as these, yet it is well to 

bear this extreme example in mind, and consider whether or not 

the results cannot be approximated if not actually attained. 

599. Low-pressure feeding. — Under the system just recom- 
mended, much costly concentrated feed is required. There are 
farms on which the high-pressure system is not advisable, but 
where cattle may be profitably fed by following an almost oppo- 
site method. On farms where there are large quantities of hay, 
straw and corn forage, together with ample pastures, it is possi- 
ble to practice a system which utilizes all these, reserving most of 
the grain grown for use during the final fattening period. Under 
this system the calves designed ultimately for beef are fed a small 
amount of grain only during the first year, receiving an abun- 
dance of roughage in winter and running on good pastures in sum- 
mer. Such stock should more than hold its weight in winter and 
gain heavily on the pastures in summer. Heavy feeding with 
grain begins when the steers are two years old. Well-bred steers 
from 30 to 36 months old raised in this manner, fed grain in quantity 
only during the last five or six months, should weigh from 1,300 
to 1,500 pounds — a size ample for market demands. 

600. The feed lot. — Dry, protected yards, with sheds on the 
windward side under which the animals may lie in comfort, form 
the ideal place for steer feeding. To keep the steer stanchioned 
or confined by a rope in the stable entails useless labor on the 



392 Feeds and Feeding, 

stockman, prevents proper exercise, and conduces to a filthy ap- 
pearance of the animal, thus working against the best gains and 
the highest sale price. Crude as has been much of the open-yard 
feeding in the West, the cattle so fed have really experienced 
more comfort than had they been confined in the stable, as is 
common in the East. The fattening steer places the excess food 
in an increasing layer of fat under the skin, which retains the 
heat. His food is heating in character, and, being in a plethoric 
condition, he much prefers the open air and sunshine with the 
freedom of the yard, even in winter, to the confinement of the 
stable with its foul air and cramped quarters. 

601. Feed racks. — Let the sheds be so constructed as to afford 
protection from the winds and driving storms. Either under the 
shed, where accessible by wagon, or in an open lot which the shed 
faces, and close by, arrange racks for fodder and boxes for grain. 
It is not well to have feed boxes and fodder rack combined, since 
the litter from the forage falling upon the feed renders it distaste- 
ful to cattle with dainty appetites. 

602. Frequency of feeding. — There is nothing helpful on this 
point from experiments, and when we turn to feeders for light we 
find a diversity of opinion as to the proper practice. It is rea- 
sonable that all young animals should be fed at least three times 
a day, while those approaching maturity and not heavily fed are 
amply provided for in two feeds. Maturing cattle prosper, and 
perhaps do their best, when supj)lied grain but once a day, with 
roughage to run to at pleasure. It is certain that many of the 
best feeders at the West supply grain but once a day. The once- 
fed steer goes to the trough with paunch well emptied and ap- 
petite at the best; filling himself to the utmost, he has ample time 
for rumination and subsequent digestion. 

603. Getting cattle to full feed. — The fattening steer should be 
brought to full feed gradually, the time required in reaching that 
point varying from one to two months. Steers which have pre- 
viously been fed grain take to it readily, while those which have 
always lived on roughage and pastures must bo carefully managed 
in this particular. Young cattle are more difficult to bring to 
full feed than mature ones. By supplying an abundance of rough- 



Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 393 

age of good quality there is less clanger in bringing cattle to full 
feed. 

When once tlie feeding period is well inaugurated, all sudden 
changes in attendants, place and manner of feeding as well as of 
the feed itself should be carefully avoided. Everything should 
move with quiet, clock-like regularity. The cattle come to know 
not only the hour but almost the minute of the feeder's arrival 
and watch for him. On his coming they expect the same sort of 
feed as before and the same little attentions. All of this meaus 
better gains than are possible from any irregular system. If 
changes in feed are necessary, as they sometimes are, — for ex- 
ample, changing from ear corn or shelled corn to corn meal, — the 
transition should be gradual rather than immediate and violent. 
Sometimes stockmen are tempted to give their cattle bits of un- 
usual food in expectation of stimulating the appetite and getting 
heavier gains. This practice is often worse than useless. The 
gourmand steer is content with uniformity in his rations, and if 
not led to anticipate unusual attentions is satisfied with a limited 
bill of fare, provided always the supply is ample. 

604. Close attention required. — The ability to fatten cattle 
rapidly and profitably is a gift, to be increased and strengthened 
by experience and study. The ability to carry a steer through 
a six months' fattening period without once getting him '' off feed " 
is possessed by many a stockman; but how this faculty is attained 
is something he cannot always impart to others. In general, 
when the steer has reached full feed, all the grain he will readily 
consume should be supplied, but any left in the feed box, to be 
breathed over, is worse than wasted. 

Scouring, the bane of the stock feeder, should be carefully 
avoided, since a single day's laxness will cut oft' a week's gain. 
This trouble is generally induced by over-feeding, by unwhole- 
some food, or by a faulty combination in the ration. Over-feed- 
ing comes from a desire of the attendant to push his cattle to 
better gains, or from carelessness and irregularity in measuring 
out the feed supply. The ideal stockman has a quick discern- 
ment which takes in every animal in the lot at a glance, and a 
quiet judgment which guides the hand in dealing out feed ample 



394 feeds and Feeding. 

for the wants of all, but not a pound excess. Cattle of the same 
age, or at least those of equal size and strength, should be fed in 
the same enclosure. Weak animals, and those unable for any rea- 
son to crowd to the feed trough and get their share, should be 
placed where they can be supplied in quiet. 

605. Other points to be observed. — The droppings of the steer 
are an excellent index of the progress of fattening. While they 
should never be hard, they should still be thick enough to ''pile 
up " and have that unctions appearance which indicates a healthy 
action of the liver. There is an odor from the droppings of thrifty, 
well-fed steers known and quickly recognized by every good 
feeder. Thin droppings and those with a sour smell indicate 
something wrong in the feed yard. 

The conduct of the steer is a further guide in marking the prog- 
ress of fattening. The manner in which he approaches the feed 
box; his quiet pose while ruminating and audible breathing when 
lying down, showing the lungs cramj^ed by the well-filled paunch; 
the quiet eye which stands full from the fattening socket; the 
oily coat, — all are points that awaken the interest, admiration 
and satisfaction of the successful feeder. 

606. Preparing steers for shipment. — Clay ^ writes: " A day or 
two previous to shipping, feed the cattle in a pen, and feed hay 
only. The secret of shipping all classes of cattle is to place them 
on the cars full of food but with as little moisture as possible. A 
steer full of water is apt to have loose bowels and show up badly 
in the yards; proj^erly handled cattle should arrive in the sale 
pens dry behind and ready for a good fill of water; not very 
thirsty but in good condition to drink freely. Many shippers 
think that by salting their cattle or feeding them oats they can 
fool the buyers, but it always goes against them to use unnatural 
amounts. As to feed on the road, nothing equals good sweet hay, 
which excels corn or other grains because it is easily digested and 
does not fever the animal. Of water iA mid-summer, care must 
be taken to sujjply the animal wants, whereas in winter a steer 
can go for many hours without a drink. Cattle should arrive at 
the sale yards at from 5 to 8 A. M. , appearing on the scene as 

» Live Stock Report, Chicago, Sept. 28, 1894. 



Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle. 



395 



near tlie latter hour as possible, since they always look better just 
after they have been fed and watered. ' ' 

Funkhouser^ advises feeding all the hay the cattle will eat, 
and reducing the grain fed at least one-half two or three days be- 
fore shipping. For steers in transit allow 250 pounds of hay and 
one and one-half bushels of grain per car. Steers on pasture that 
have had corn should be taken off pasture twenty-four hours be- 
fore shipping, and allowed half a feed of corn with plenty of hay. 

II. Rations for Fattening Steers. 
607. Theoretical rations for fattening steers. — To show the 
amount of feed a steer should receive according to the Wolff-Leh- 
mann standard, two rations are presented which are reasonably 
close to the requirements. In the first, corn is the leading con- 
centrate, with oil meal additional to furnish the protein; in the 
second, silage furnishes the roughage, with bran, corn and cob 
meal and cotton-seed meal for the concentrates. See Chapter 
VII, Part II. 

Motions compounded in accordance with the Wolff-Lehmann feeding 
standard for steers weighing 1,000 pounds, first period. 



Ration No. 1. 
Wolff-Lehmann standard. 



Dry 
matter. 



Lbs. 
30 



Digestible nutrienta. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Lbs. 
2.50 



Carbo- 

hy- 
drates. 



Ether 
extract. 



Lbs. 
15.00 



Lbs. 
.50 



Corn fodder, 8 pounds 

Clover hay, 2 pounds 

Dent corn, 14 pounds 

Oil meal, O. P., 4 pounds. 



4.62 

1.69 

12.52 

3.63 



.20 

.13 

1.09 

1.17 



2.77 

.72 

9.34 

1.31 



.03 
.03 
.60 

.28 



Total. 



22.46 



2.59 



14.14 



.94 



Ration No. 2. 

Corn silage, 30 pounds 

Oat straw, 5 pounds 

Roller bran, 10 pounds 

Corn and cob meal, 4 pounds. 
Cotton-seed meal, 2 pounds.... 



Total. 



6.27 
4.54 

8.81 
3.40 

1.84 



.27 
.06 
1.22 
.18 
.74 



3.39 
1.93 
3.92 
2.40 

.38 



.21 
.04 
.27 
.12 
'.24 



24.86 



2.47 



12.02 



Breeder's Gazette, Chicago, Jan. 18, 1893. 



396 Feeds and Feeding. 

In both rations there is much less dry matter than is called for 
by the standard. This departure is not of much significance, as 
the ration possesses a reasonable volume. The carbohydrates are 
less than called for by the standard, but this is nearly made good 
by the excess of ether extract. 

These rations are constructed on purely theoretical grounds, 
but will be found satisfactory where the feeding-stuffs called for 
are reasonable in price. 

608. Rations used at the Experiment Stations. — In the feeding 
trials at various Experiment Stations numerous rations have been 
used, a few of which are here presented, care being taken in 
their selection to present as wide a range of feeding materials as 

possible. 

Ontario Agricultural College. ^ 

Hoofs and barley. Lbs. Roots and corn. Lbs. 

Av. wt. of steers fed 1,061 Av. wt. of steers fed 1,106 

Dailygain 2.14 Dailygain 2.31 

Hay 12. Hay 9.5 

Roots 46. Roots 34. 

Bran 5. Bran 3.5 

Barley 11.25 Corn 9.25 

Iowa Experiment Station. ^ Oregon Experiment Station. ^ 

Corn and oil meal. Lbs. Wheat and silage. Lbs. 

Av. wt. of steers fed 1,340 Av. wt. of steers fed 847 

Dailygain 2.8 Dailygain 2. 



Snapped corn 22.5 Chopped wheat 10.3 

Corn meal 3.7 Clover hay 8. 

Oil meal 4.2 Corn silage 18. 

Hay 5.7 

Kansas Experiment Station.'^ 

^^ Balanced^' 7'ation. Lbs. Corn and stover. Lbs. 

Av. wt. of steers fed 1,083 Av. wt. of steers fed 1,211 

Dailygain 2.4 Dailygain 1.7 

Cornmeal 10. Ear corn 26.7 

Shorts 5. Stover 5. 

Bran 2. 

Oil meal 4. 

Tame hay 6.5 



Rept. 1883. =* Bui. 20. » Bui. 37. ■• Buls. 34 and 39. 



Feed and Managetnent of Fattening Cattle. 397 

Texa^ Experiment Station. ^ 

Cotton-seed meal and hulls. Lbs. Corn and cotton seed. Lbs. 

Av. wt. of steers fed 638 Av, wt. of steers fed 576 

Daily gain 1.76 Daily gain 1.9 



Cotton-seed meal 5. Corn 5.3 

Cotton-seed hulls 7.2 Cottonseed 5.2 

Corn silage 20. Hay 5.3 

III. Fattening Range Cattle. 

609. Description of operations. — About the year 1885 several 
companies controlling Western ranges undertook the experiment 
of moving cattle to points in the corn belt for fattening while in 
transit to the stock markets. Two results were sought, — a higher 
finish, and relieving an overstocked range. Of the several efforts 
in this direction, that of the Standard Cattle Co., with ranches in 
Wyoming and Montana, and a feeding establishment at Ames, 
Neb., is the best example. The possessions of this company at 
Ames include a number of farms aggregating several thousand 
acres, with additional rented lands lying in the Platte valley pos- 
sessing a rich, black, sandy soil, well adapted to corn growing. 

The barn of this company is 682 feet long and over 200 feet 
wide, with a capacity for 3,008 steers, each animal occupying a 
separate stall 4x8 feet. There are eight double rows of cattle with 
heads toward each other. A tramway extends between each 
double row of cattle, down which a car travels used for distribut- 
ing the meal and hay, which are placed in broad, flat feeding 
boxes, the sides of which act as rails for the car wheels. On each 
side of the feed boxes next to the steers is a narrow trough through 
which fresh water for drinking continually flows. The pumps 
which lift this water also send a flood down the ditch behind the 
steers, into which passes from each stall the voidings of the animals, 
the whole wasting into the Platte river. The roof of this monster 
barn begins low at the sides and rises by steps with windows in 
each rise, so that the interior is well lighted and easily ventilated. 
A mill and elevator adjoining is connected by a tramway. The 
arrangements permit feeding the cattle and cleaning the stable 
with the minimum of labor. Each season, in addition to the 

1 Bui. 27. 



398 Feeds and Feeding. 

cattle in the stable, several thousand are fed in bunches of a 
few hundred each on the outlying farms of the company. These 
steers are fed grain in open boxes, supplied once or twice a day, 
and hay from long racks filled whenever occasion requires. 

This mammoth business has from its inception been under the 
care of Mr. E. M. Allen, General Manager of the Company, who 
gives personal supervision to the work in all departments. From 
a careful examination of the feeding operations as conducted at 
the stable and the several outdoor quarters in 1890, at which 
time over 7,000 cattle were receiving grain, the writer believes 
the experiment of wholesale range cattle feeding at Ames has as 
fair a trial as can possibly be given. 

Fortunately for the student, Mr. Allen has kept complete records 
of all feeding operations from the beginning. The results are 
an accumulation of data bearing on the question of the whole- 
sale feeding of range cattle, which because of the magnitude of 
the operations, the many years covered by them, and the unusual 
care and accuracy with which the records have been kept, have 
become invaluable to the student of animal husbandry, as well as 
of keen interest to many who have to deal with the problem of 
cattle-feeding at the West. 

610. The data obtained. — The tables here presented give the 
most important data of the operations at Ames down to the 
present, covering eleven years' operations, during which time 
49, 648 cattle have been fed. These cattle were mostly steers from 
Wyoming and Montana ranges with some Texans and spayed 
heifers. The cattle were four and five years old when fed. They 
were wild when brought to the feeding station, and were unused 
to feed and confinement. These conditions combined to make 
the preliminary feeding period a long one, and the quantity of 
feed required for a given gain large. Notwithstanding this the 
operation as a whole is thoroughly representative of its class, and 
furnishes an important and instructive lesson. ^ 

* The data presented were kindly furnished by Mr. Allen. A more ex- 
tended account of the operations is given by Coburn in the Quarterly- 
Report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture, December, 1897. 



Feed and Management of Fattening Cattle, 399 

Number of cattle marketed and gains — Standard Cattle Co., Allen. 



Year. 


Number 

of cattle 

marketed 


Number 

of days 

fed. 


Av. wt. 

of cattle 

when 

received. 


Av. wt. 
of cattle 

at 
market. 


Av. 

gain. 


Shrink- 
age per 
head. 








Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1886-87... 


5,417 


151 


959 


1,097 


138 


13.2 


1887-88... 


5,586 


202 


989 


1,235 


246 


62.3 


1888-89... 


4,269 


180 


1,036 


1,298 


262 


24.9 


1889-90... 


6,033 


197 


870 


1,119 


249 


22.8 


1890-91... 


7,298 


222 


1,032 


1,272 


240 


35.9 


1891-92... 


2,176 


2-52 


1,116 


1,399 


283 


71.6 


1892-93... 


1,222 


126 


955 


1,175 


220 


59.2 


1893-94... 


2,539 


182 


1,053 


1,281 


228 


54.3 


1894-95... 


5,878 


152 


1,073 


1,290 


217 


42.8 


1895-96... 


3,775 


171 


1,154 


1,392 


238 


46.6 


1896-97... 


5,454 


215 


1,066 


1,304 


238 


41.8 



Amount of grain and hay fed to cattle reported in previous table. 



Year. 



Corn. 



Oats. 



Bran. 



Oil meal. 


Hay. 


Lbs. 


Tons. 


1,143,000 
665,752 
706,966 
390,&56 

3,717,890 
270,690 
151,480 
481,320 


5,a50 
7,817 
4,682 
3,340 
7,8a5 
4,392 
1,101 
2,042 


2,517,532 


3,546 


798,040 


1,451 


228,000 


4,087 



Stover. 



1886-87 
1887-88. 
1888-89. 
1889-90. 
1890-91. 
1891-92. 
1892-93. 
1893-94. 

1894-95, 

1895-96. 

1896-97. 



Lbs. 

9,693,702 
17,060,838 
10,421,864 
21,064,820 
19,389,664 
9,987,798 
2,192,680 
6,740,328 

9, ,388, 121 

8,728,384 

21,288,792 



Lbs. 



3.54, 

767, 

416, 

,439, 

22, 

53, 



968 
179 
442 
106 
528 
1.52 



790 1 
606*; 
.536 
208 ^ 
688t^ 
2501 j 



Lbs. 

1,453,176 

624,885 

428,.5;iO 

2,451,2.55 

1,208,010 

6,132 

10,470 

241,895 

2,022,140 

1,121,090 

718,000 



Tons. 



1,433 
2,864 

5,938 



* Wheat. t Barley. % Peas. 

Daily feed consumed and daily gains. 



Year. 


No. of 
cattle fed. 


No. of 
days fed. 


'Grain per 

head per 

day. 


Hay per 

head per 

day. 


Stover per 

head per 

day. 


Av. gain 
of cattle 
per day. 


1886-87 


5,532 
5,717 
4,355 
7,090 
7,376 
2,198 
1,269 
2,609 
5,925 
3,827 
5,495 


1.51 
202 
180 
197 
222 
2.52 
126 
182 
1.52 
171 
215 


Lbs. 

15.1 

16.5 

15.3 

18 

15 

19 

14.7 

15.7 

17 

19 

19 


Lbs. 

12.1 

13.5 

11.9 
4.8 
9.5 

15.0 

13.7 
8.6. 
7.8 
4.5 
6.9 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
.0 


1887-88 




1.2 


1888-89 




1.4 


1889-90 




1.3 


1890-91 




1.1 


1891-92 




1.1 


1892-93 




1.7 


1893-94 




1.3 


1894-95 


3.1 

8.7 
10 


1.4 


1895-96 


1.4 


1896-97 


1.1 







400 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Cost for food and labor of feeding cattle, seasons of 189Jf.-95, 1895-96 
and 1896-97 — Standard Cattle Co., Allen. 





1894-95. 


1895-96. 


1896-97. 




Amount 
per head. 


Cost per 
head. 


Amount 
per head. 


Cost per 
head. 


Amount 
per head. 


Cost per 
head. 


Corn 


Bu. 

28.3 

.3 

6.1 

7.6 

4.1 


$12 13 

09 

2 44 

4 27 
2 13 


Bu. 

40.7 
8.6 
5.2 
3.7 


$7 19 
2 17 
1 59 
1 67 


Bu. 

69.1 

.2 

2.3 

.7 


18 55 


Oats 


03 


Bran 


46 


Oil cake 


37 


Wheat 




Peas 








04 


Barley.. 










.7 

Tons. 

.7 

1.1 


17 


Hav 


Tons. 
.6 


3 61 


Tons. 
.4 


63 


78 


Stover 


1 55 


Forage beets 




12 
03 
03 




1 24 
07 
02 


71 


Silage 








10 


Salt 








04 




Bu. 

46.4 

Tons. 

.6 








Total grain 

Total hay and 
stover 


[24 a5 

1 71 
24 


Bu. 

58.2 

Tons. 

.4 


[14 58 

2 55 
16 


Bu. 

74.8 

Tons. 

1.8 


1 12 80 


Labor 


1 67 


Coal and gasoline 
Oil 








35 








02 






21 
33 










Horse forage 






45 




23 












Total labor 




2 49 




3 16 




2 27 












Total food and 
labor . . . 




27 34 




17 74 




15 07 













Av. No. days fed. 
Av. gain per head 

in pounds 

Cost of 100 pounds 

gain 




215 

238 

$6 33 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



THE DAIEY COW — SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS. 



611. Period of gestation. — " The average period of gestation for 
the cow is 284 days; small cows, heifers with their first calf, and 
old animals, usually go a day or two less; bulls are carried a day 
or two longer than cow-calves." ^ 

612. Ecanomy of the dairy cow. — Xot only is dairying the lead- 
ing animal industry of our country at this time, but so it must 
continue indefinitely, for the reason that the cow is a more econom- 
ical producer of food for human beings than is the ox or the pig. 
This is ably shown by Lawes and Gilbert ^ in the following table: 

Coniparison of the constituents of food carried off in mllJc and in the 
fattening increase of the ox — Lawes and Crilbert. 



(1 Imperial gallon = 4 quarts = 10.33 lbs.) 



Nitrog- 
enous 
sub- 
stance. 



Fat. 



Non-nitro- 
genous 

substances 
not fat 
(sugar). 



Mineral 
matter. 



Total 
solid 
matter. 



In milk per week — Cow. 



If 4 quarts 
If 6 quarts 
If 8 quarts 
If 10 quarts 
If 12 quarts 
If 14 quarts 
If 16 quarts 
If 18 quarts 
If 20 quarts 



per head, 
per heiid, 
per head, 
per head, 
per head, 
per head, 
per head, 
per head, 
per head, 



per day. 
per day. 
per day., 
per day., 
per day., 
per day., 
per day., 
per day., 
per day.. 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


2.64 


2.53 


3.33 


.54 


3.96 


3.80 


4.99 


.81 


5.28 


5.06 


6.66 


1.08 


6.60 


6.3;^ 


8.32 


1.35 


7.92 


7.59 


9.99 


1.62 


9.24 


8.86 


ll.ftS 


1.89 


10.56 


10.12 


13.32 


2.16 


11.88 


11.39 


14.98 


2.43 


13.20 


12.65 


16.65 


2.70 



Lbs. 

9.04 
13.56 
18.08 
22.60 
27.12 
31.64 
36.16 
40.68 
45.20 



In increase in live weight per week — Ox. 



If 10 pounds increase.. 
If 15 pounds increase.. 



1.13 



6.35 
9.53 



7.25 
10.88 



"We are shown by the table that the fattening steer, gaining 
15 pounds weekly, yields 1.13 pounds of nitrogenous substance or 

1 Sheldon, Dairy Farming. ^ jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1895. 

26 



402 Feeds and Feeding. 

water-free lean meat, wliile the dairy cow during the same period, 
when yielding 10 quarts of milk daily, returns in this milk 6.6 
pounds of nitrogenous substance, casein and albumen, or six times 
as much. Of mineral matter the ox stores during the week .22 
pounds, while the dairy cow secretes in her milk 1.35 pounds, or 
again, about six times as much. The steer adds to his carcass 
9.53 pounds of fat, while in the milk of the cow there are 6.33 
pounds of fat, or two-thirds as much. During this time, how- 
ever, the cow has secreted in her milk 8.32 pounds of milk sugar, 
tigainst which there is no comparable substance in the flesh of the 
ox. Reducing this sugar to its fat equivalent, (60) the cow is 
shown to have yielded as much fat or fat equivalent as has the 
steer. Commenting on this table, Lawes and Gilbert writer^ 

* * Thus, as compared with fattening increase, which may, in a 
sense, be said to be little more than an accumulation of reserve 
material from excess of food, milk is a special i^roduct of a special 
gland for a special normal exigency of the animal." 

Thorne, of the Ohio Station, 2 comparing the returns from 
steers and dairy cows, concludes that the steer gains three pounds 
in live weight when consuming the same quantity of feed as the 
cow when producing one pound of butter-fat. 

In this country, where stock foods are still so abundant and 
population sparse, we use the flesh of animals freely, even waste- 
fully. When population grows dense, the ox will be the first to 
disappear from our agriculture because it is not an economical 
producer of human food, while the dairy cow will remain an 
economical instrument for that purpose. (695) 

613. Yield of products. — A good dairy cow will yield in one 
year 6,600 pounds of milk, in which there are: 

285 pounds of fat. 
376 pounds of milk sugar. 
220 pounds of casein and albumen. 
49 pounds of ash. 

Total, 930 pounds of solids. 
These substances are practically all digestible. 



' Loc. cit. 2 Kept. 1893. 



The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings. 403 

614. Ratio of milk yield to body weight. — KJraemeri states that 
cows yield during the year from four to eight times their body 
weight in milk, and that each pound of dry matter fed will return 
from four- to eight-tenths of a pound of milk, these returns being 
gauged by the character of the cow, as follows: 

Character Yield of milk Milk per pound dry 

of cow. in body weight. matter in feed. 

Poor 4 times. .4 pounds. 

Medium 5 times. .5 pounds. 

Good 6 times. .6 pounds. 

Verj' good 7 times. .7 pounds. 

ExeeUent 8 times. .8 pounds. 

615. Percentage fat in successive portions of milk. — At the New 

York (Geneva) Station, 2 Collier examined the milk from 5 cows 
as drawn, pint by pint, and found the fat in the successive lots as 
follows: .85, 1.43, 1.68, 2.02, 2.23, 2.65, 3.27, 3.74, 4.05, 4.86, 
4.48, 4.30, 5.23, while the average of the whole milk was 3.21. 
The average per cent, of fat in the first and last pints was .85 and 
5.23, an increase of nearly 500 per cent. The average per cent, 
of fat in the first and last halves of the milk was 1.92 and 4.35, an 
increase of 127 per cent. 

The above shows the poverty in fat of the first milk drawn 
from the cow and the richness of that last drawn. It shows that 
those who allow calves to have the first milk from the cow and 
reserve the strippings withhold the richest milk. 

616. Concerning fat globules. — Collier ^ places the average se- 
cretion of milk by the cow at .7 of a pound or 19.6 cubic inches 
per hour. One ten-thousandth of a cubic millimeter of milk was 
found to contain on an average 152 fat globules. (828) From 
these data he concludes that the average cow in the Geneva Station 
herd secreted 138,210,000 fat globules each second. According 
to Babcock^ the number of fat globules in a quart of milk of 
average composition is not less than 2,000,000,000,000. These 
figures are beyond comprehension, and should increase our in- 
terest in the marvelous processes of animal life. Appreciating 

^ Die Schule der Schweizer-kasers. 
2 Kept. 1891. 

■•* Kept. New York (Geneva) Sta., 1892. 
* Bui. 18, Wis. Expt. Sta. 



404 



Feeds and Feeding. 



these facts the thoughtful dairyman will not regard the dairy cow 
an idler. 

617. Relation of live weight to yield. — The relation of live 
weight to yield of milk and fat by cows is illustrated in the fol- 
lowing table by "VVoll, ^ which gives a summary of the results of 
Breed Test No. 1, conducted at the World's Columbian Exposi- 
tion, Chicago, 1893, the data given being the average and total 
figures for seventy-five animals, (See Chapter XXVII, Part I. ) 
The cows are grouped according to their live weight into three 
sets, the first including the lightest animals, the second represent- 
ing the medium, and the third the heavy cows. The scale of prices 
for feeds is of course arbitrary, but being the same for all ani- 
mals it serves the desired purpose. 

Relation of average live weight of cows to yield of milk and fat — 
Goliwibian Dairy Test JVo. 1, fifteen days — Woll. 



Breed. 


Live 
wt. 


Yield of — 


Yield per 1,000 
lbs. live weight. 


Cost 

of 

food. 


Cost of 

producing 

100 lbs. 




Milk. 


Fat. 


Milk. 


Fat. 


of fat. 


lAgM cows. 


Lbs. 

846 

988 


Lbs. 

510.1 
422.0 
434.3 


Lbs. 

22.91 
18.49 
15.86 


Lbs. 

603.0 
502.9 
439.5 


Lbs. 

27.08 
22.04 
16.05 


$3 77 
3 00 
3 50 


$16 45 


Guernsey 


16 23 




22 06 








891 


455.5 


19.09 


511.2 


21.42 


m 42 


$17 93 






Medium cows. 


923 

923 
1,127 


532.1 
417.8 
510.0 


24.74 
18.97 
18.47 


576.5 
452.6 
452.7 


26.80 
20.55 
16.40 


$3 98 

3 07 

4 02 


816 09 




16 14 




21 74 








991 


486.6 


20.73 


490.9 


20.91 


m 69 


S17 79 






Heavy cows. 
Jersey 


999 
1,001 
1,302 


657.3 
475.0 
524.7 


24.74 
21.40 
18.22 


5.57.8 
474.5 
403.1 


24.77 
21. ;« 
14.00 


U 04 
3 08 
409 


$16 33 




14 40 


Short-horn 


22 45 






Average 


1,101 


519.0 


21.45 


471.4 


19.48 


$3 74 


$17 42 







The different groups include the same number of cows of each 
breed, so that the influence of breed is practically eliminated. 
The results show that the lightest cows produced less milk and fat 
than the other two groups, the cost of feed also being less. The 
yield of milk and fat per 1,000 pounds live weight was great- 
est with the light cows and least with the heaviest cows. Calcu- 



1 Hoard's Dairyman, March 30, June 22, 1894. 



The Dairy Coic — Scientific Findings. 405 

lilting the cost of 100 pounds of fat, the results favor the heaviest 
cows, though the difference is small. 

618. Large versus small cows. — BrandP conducted three ex- 
periments with light and heavy dairy cows, each lasting four 
weeks, the second commencing seventy days after the close of the 
first, and the third a year after the beginning of the first. Thirty 
of the heaviest milkers in the herd were separated into two lots 
of fifteen cows each, according to live w^eight. The cows were 
kept under similar conditions as to feed and care during the trial, 
none being bred after the beginning of the experiment. The 
average weight of the heavy cows was 1,205 pounds and of the 
light cows 979 pounds. The leading conclusions from the experi- 
ments are: 

1. The milk of the small cows is richer in fat than that of the 
large ones. 

2. Large cows eat a greater amount of feed than small cows; per 
thousand pounds live weight they eat less. 

3. Small cows produce less milk than large cows, absolutely 
and relatively. 

4. When in thin flesh small cows may produce more per thou- 
sand pounds live weight than large cows. 

5. Large farrow cows are more persistent milkers; on the other 
hand, small cows show a greater tendency to fatten on the same 
feed, with a decrease in milk flow. 

6. The loss in selling ten of the large cows amounted to five 
guilden per head on the average, after having been kept nearly 
a year, while the loss for ten small cows was twelve guilden per 
head. 

619. Dairy compared with beef type. — At the Minnesota Sta- 
tion2 Haecker conducted a trial which shows in a marked way the 
difference between cows of the so-called dairy type and the blocky 
beef cow. The Station herd was separated into four lots, Group I 
including those of the beef type. Group II showing less tendency 
to the beef type, Group III embracing spare cows lacking in 
depth, and Group IV spare cows with deep bodies^ representing 
the dairy type. 

1 Jahresber. u. Agr. Chemie., 1894, 474. * Bui. 35. 



406 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The results of this interesting trial are shown in the following 
table: 

Beef and dairy type cows compared — Minnesota Station. 



Group. 



I. Beef type , 

II. Less of beef type.. 

III. Lacking depth of 

body , 

IV. Dairy type , 



No. oH 
ani- 
mals 



12 



Av. live 
weight. 



Lbs. 

1.240 
945 

875 
'J51 



Dry 

matter 

eaten 

per day. 



Lbs. 

20.81 
20.37 

19.95 
21.86 



Dry 

matter 

per 1,000 

lbs. of 

live wt. 



Lbs. 

16.66 
21.02 

23.00 

23.58 



Dry 

matter 
per lb. 
of fat. 



Lbs. 

31.25 
26.42 

25.54 
21.15 



Cost of 
one lb. 
of fat. 



Cents. 

17.5 
15.1 

14.6 
12.1 



Discussing the results, Haecker writes: '^The productive 
capacity of the cow depends more upon type and conformation 
than upon size or breed. Those of the beef type produced fat at 
a cost of seventeen and a half cents per pound; those carrying a 
medium amount of flesh produced fat at a cost of fifteen and one- 
tenth cents per pound; the spare cows lacking in depth of body 
produced fat at a cost of fourteen and six-tenths cents per pound, 
and the spare cows having deep bodies produced fat at a cost of 
twelve and one-tenth cents per pound." 

620. Effect of age of cow on productivity of feed. — Studying 
the Ohio Station herd, Thorne^ reports on the influence of age 
as follows: 

Effect of age of cow on returns for feed given — Ohio Station. 



Age. 


No. of 
cows. 


Days since 
calving. 


Fat per 100 
lbs. dry 
matter. 


Live weight. 


Gain. 


Loss. 


3 and 4 years... 
5 years 


7 
7 
10 
6 
4 
5 
6 
2 


127 
260 
13;') 
157 
115 
172 
105 
133 


Lbs. 

2.95 
2.99 
3.45 
3.62 
3.14 
3.05 
3.22 
2.75 


Lbs. 

33 
23 
29 


Lbs. 




6 years 




7 years 


11 


8 years 


28 




9 years 


12 


10 years 




9 


11 and 13 years.. 




15 







Kept. Ohio Sta., 1893. 



The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings. 



407 



We learn tliat from her first calf up to and including the 
seventh year, the cow gives gradually increasing returns for a 
given quantity of feed; after the seventh year they gradually 
diminish until the eleventh to the thirteenth year, when the 
returns from feed are less than with the heifer. There is an in- 
crease in weight during the first years, followed in later years 
by some loss in weight. This table is in harmony with the ex- 
perience of dairymen as to the most profitable years in the life 
of the cow. 

621. Advance in lactation and productivity of feed. — Thorne^ 
also studied the feed consumption and fat returns of thirty-one 
cows used in tests at the Ohio and Wisconsin Stations, and deduced 
the table given below for the purpose of showing the returns from 
the cow as the lactation period advances: 

Returns for feed consumed as time since calving increases — Ohio 
and Wisconsin Stations. 



Distance from calving. 


No. 

of 

cows. 


Fat per 
100 lbs. 

dry 
matter. 


Live weight. 




Gain. 


Loss. 


Less than 60 days; average 39 days 


3 

9 

13 

6 


Lbs. 

4.16 
3.32 
3.05 
2.90 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
04 


From 60 to 120 days; average 91 days 


.11 

.27 
.34 




From 120 to 180 days; average 142 ^ays .. 
More than 180 days; average 256 days 









We learn that shortly after calving the cow is at her best in 
the fat she returns for feed consumed, and that during this period 
there is usually a loss in body weight. As time since calving 
increases the return of fat for feed consumed is reduced, the 
cow, when well nurtui-ed, increasing somewhat in weight. Dur- 
ing the last stages of lactation the cow returns only about three- 
fourths as much fat for feed consumed as shortly after calving. 

622. Influence of time from calving on milk flow. — Sturtevant, 2 
studying the diminution in milk flow of cows from month to 
month after calving, reached the conclusion that this decrease 



* Loc. cit. 

aRept. New York (Geneva) Sta., 1886. 



408 



Feeds and Feeding. 



may be placed at about nine per cent, of the yield for the preced- 
ing month. The actual average yield of a herd and the theoret- 
ical yield, according to this factor, appear in the following 
table: 

Monthly decrease in milk flow of dairy cows, actual and theoretical — 

SturtevaJit. 





For whole herd. 


For cows that went 

dry between 8th and 

12th month. 




Actual 

daily milk 

yield. 


Theoretical 

daily milk 

yield. 


Actual 

daily milk 

yield. 


Theoretical 

daily milk 

yield. 


1st month 


Lbs. 

2-5.7 
24.4 
22.0 
19.9 
17.3 
16.5 
14.9 
13.4 
12.3 
11.1 


Lbs. 

25.7 
23.4 
21.3 
19.4 
17.7 
16.1 
14.7 
13.4 
12.2 
11.1 


Lbs. 

26.9 
25.2 
22.8 
20.6 
18.7 
17.0 
15.0 
12.7 
11.6 
10.4 


Lbs. 
26.9 


2d moil til 


24.5 


3d month 


22.3 


4th month 


21.3 


5th month 


18.5 


6th month 


16.9 


7th month 


15.4 


8th month 


14.0 


9th mon th 


12.8 


10th month 


11.6 







In the table given above, the theoretical yield for each month 
was obtained by subtracting nine per cent, of the yield for the 
previous month from the yield for that month. "We observe that 
the actual yield agrees closely with the theoretical in showing the 
jiossible yield of milk by the cow in any given month. 

623. Heavy feeders may be the most profitable. — At the Penn- 
sylvania Station, ^ Waters and Hess, studying the returns from 
nine cows in the Station herd during a trial lasting 1.50 days, se- 
cured imi)ortant data relative to the food consumed and the yield 
of butter. Cows which had been tested the previous year were 
used in this trial. Some of these had excellent butter records, 
while others were of average or low productive power. All were 
fed liberally according to their capacity for consuming food. 
Eecords were kept of consumption and production. 

In a table prepared by these investigators are summarized the 
butter yielded by each cow the preceding season, the cost of the 



Kept. 1895. 



The Dairy Cow — Scientific Findings. 



409 



feed eaten during the test and tlie net profit per cow daily. These 
results are shown below: 



Ifet profits of individual dairy cows — Pennsylvania Station. 


Cow. 


Yield of 
butter 

previous 
year. 


Yield of 
butter 
during ex- 
periment. 


Digestible 

material 

consumed 

daily. 


Average 

daily cost 

of feed. 


Average 

daily net 

profit. 


No. 1 


Lbs. 

365 
34.5 
365 
322 
318 
340 
276 
231 
178 


Lbs. 

211 

182 
164 
156 
152 
135 
127 
117 
90 


Lbs. 

15.8 
15.3 
14.1 
15.0 
14.5 
13.3 
14.5 
13.7 
13.7 


Cents. 

18 
18 
17 
17 
17 
15 
17 
16 
16 


Cents. 
25 


No. 2 


22 


No. 3 


17 


No. 4 


14 


No. 5 


14 


No. 6 


12 


No. 7 


9 


No. 8 


8 


No. 9 


3 







We observe that, as a rule, the cows which ate the most gave 
the largest net returns; the smallest eaters gave the least. 

624. Another illustration. — Armsby^ presents an interesting 
study of the cows used in the ninety-day test at the Columbian 
Exposition, 1893. (Chapter XXVII, Part I. ) These cows were 
arranged in eleven groups, irrespective of breed, according to the 
amount of total solids produced during ninety, days. 

Showing of the ninety-day butter test, Columbian Exposition — Arnisby. 





Average total yield of — 


Cost of 
feed. 


Net 
profits.* 


Feed cost per lb. 




Solids. 


Fat. 


Solids. 


Fat. 


8 cows 


Lbs. 

478.13 
446.24 
427.90 
400.60 
375.83 
346.70 
329.99 
815.09 
301.63 
278.94 
253.34 


Lbs. 

154.11 

140.78 

139.84 

126.41 

12.5.68 

107.53 

101.91 

99.07 

98.23 

90.00 

79.29 


$24 84 
22 78 
22 97 

20 95 

21 .59 
20 55 
20 75 
19 .36 

18 91 

19 18 
19 85 


$57 41 
52 30 
51 66 
46 01 
45 18 
35 87 
33 36 
33 23 
32 79 
28 84 
21 98 


Cents. 

5.19 
5.11 
5.37 
5.23 
5.77 
5.93 
6.29 
6.14 
6.27 
6.87 
7.84 


Cents. 
16.11 


6 cows 


16.18 


8 cows 


16.43 


() cows 


16.58 


8 cows 


17.17 


8 cows 


19.11 


7 cows 


20.36 


5 cows 


19.54 


7 cows 


19.25 


6 cows 


21.31 


4 cows 


25.04 







* Computed as in test, except live weight not included. 



» Jersey Bulletin, Dec. 23, 1896. 



410 Feeds and Feeding. 

The table shows that the cows yielding the largest amount of 
solids and fat consumed the most feed; further, and what is of 
the most importance, they gave the largest net profit. The cows 
giving the smallest yield cost 20 per cent, less to feed, but the 
net profits from them were 60 per cent, less than from the heavy 
feeders. It does not follow that every large feeder in a dairy 
herd is an economical cow; the wise dairymj^n will not judge 
his cows by the amount of feed, but rather by the milk yield and 
fat test, taking cognizance, in the second place, of the feed con- 
sumed. 

625. Amount of water draak. — In feeding experiments at the 

Copenhagen St at ion i the water drank by seventy-six cows on two 

estates was as follows: 

Av, ivater drank 
per day. 

Ordinary ration 97.9 pounds. 

Same, 2'll).s. grain replaced l)y 20 lbs. roots 81.4 pounds. 

Same, 4 lbs. grain replaced by 40 lbs. roots 61.6 pounds. 

Same, plus 40 lbs. roots '. 74.8 pounds. 

At the Pennsylvania Station, 2 Armsby found that cows averag- 
ing 773 pounds in weight, confined to stalls in summer where an 
average temperature of 70° Fahr. prevailed, and living on fresh 
grass, drank Gl pounds of water per head per day, while cows aver- 
aging 735 pounds, confined in stalls where a temperatm-e of 73° 
prevailed, drank 107 pounds when fed on dry grass. 

At the Wisconsin Station ^ the same investigator found that 
more water was drank with narrow rations than with wide ones. 
Thus, with a nutritive ratio of 1 :5.5, there were 4.33 pounds of 
water drank lor each pound of dry matter, while with a ratio of 
1 : 8.G only 2.41 pounds were drank. 

In general it may be said that cows require about four pounds of 
water for each pound of dry matter in the feed consumed. 

Sturtevant, of the New York (Geneva) Station,* writes: "A 
water supply should be sufficient to furnish an average of eight 
gallons daily per head for the cows kept, in order to be assured 
of a full supply." 

626. Relation of water drank or in food to milk yield. — Collier, 
reporting findings in this matter at the Geneva Station, ^ writes: 

1 Rcpt. 1890, p. 8. 2 Rept. 1888. ^ Kept. 1886. •• Rept. 1886. 
^ Proc. of "New York Farmers," 1892-93. 



The Dahy Cow — Scientific Findings. 411 

^'We have found that our cows which averaged 898 pounds in 
weight drank each month 1,660 pounds of water, and their food 
contained in addition 775 pounds, or a total of 2,435 pounds of 
water for a milk yield of 529 pounds, an average of 4. 6 pounds 
of water for one pound of milk. These same cows while dry 
drank each month 1,054 pounds of water, and there were 532 
l^ounds in their food, an aggregate of 1,586 pounds, or 65.1 per 
cent, of the amount they had during lactation." 

627. Warm versus cold water. — At the Wisconsin Station, ^ 
King conducted two trials where water warmed to a temperature 
of 70° Fahr. was supplied to one lot of cows in opposition to 
water at a temperature of 32° given a second lot. In the first trial 
the cows receiving the warm water gave 6 per cent, more milk 
than those getting cold water, while in the second trial there is a 
difference of only one per cent, in favor of the warmer water. 
The cows given the warm water drank from 8 to 10 pounds more 
daily than those supplied cold water. 

At the Indiana Station, 2 Wolf found that when the temper- 
atirre of the water supplied was reduced from 79° to 38° Fahr,, 
the cows fell off 8 per cent, in milk yield. 

628. Drinking at will. — Backhaus^ reports trials with cows 
kept in an ordinary stable where water was given them twice 
daily; they were then changed to stalls having troughs with a 
constant water supply in each manger. Under this change the 
milk yield increased on an average about one pound per cow daily, 
there being no decrease in the fat content. The increased yield 
due to a constant supply of water was estimated at 225 pounds 
of milk per cow annually. (710) 

629. Salt for milch cows. * — Three cows were fed from June 20 
to July 15 without an allowance of salt; the milk yielded from 
July 4 to 18 amounted to 454 pounds. From July 18 to August 1, 
4 ounces of salt were given daily to each cow, and the yield of 
milk during this time was 564 pounds, an increase of 110 pounds. 

630. Value of shelter. — At the Indiana Station, ^ Plumb tested 
the value of shelter with six grade cows divided into two lots of 

1 Repts. 1889-90. 2 Bui. 24. ^ Milch Zeit., 1892, pp. 509-12. 
* Loc. cit., 1895, p. 186. = Bui. 47. 



412 Feeds and Feeding. 

three each, the lots being as nearly equal in all respects as possi- 
ble. One lot was housed in the stable except on pleasant days, 
when an hour's exercise was allowed. On disagreeable days they 
were turned out to drink and immediately returned to their stalls. 
The lot subjected to exposure was turned into the yard at 8 A. M., 
regardless of the weather, and returned to the barn at 4 P. M. In 
a protected corner of the barnyard was an open shed furnishing 
shelter, and under this the mid- day feed of hay was given. Evi- 
dently the cows most exposed were even then under more comfort- 
able conditions than are cows on many dairy farms at the North 
during winter. The trial lasted 48 days, during which time the 
exposed cows ate 512 pounds less hay, but 388 pounds more corn 
meal and 368 pounds more bran than the housed lot. Despite 
the extra feed they shrank 33 pounds in weight, while the shel- 
tered lot gained 231 pounds and gave 161 pounds more milk. 
Plumb, summarizing the result, gives the following financial 
statement: 

Saving in cost of feed eaten $4 23 

Value of extra milk, 161 pounds 2 79 

Value of 231 pounds gain at 2.5 cents per pound 5 77 

Amount saved by sheltering three cows 48 days.... $12 79 
Amount saved by sheltering one cow 48 days 4 26 

These results, showing the great importance of sheltering dairy 
cows, stand in strong contrast with experimental data in regard 
to shelter in winter for fattening sheep and steers. (561, 697, 750) 

631. Influence of work on quality of milk. — The composition 
and quality of the milk of two cows employed in plowing was 
studied by Dornic. * It was found that the composition of the 
milk was but slightly changed because of the work performed. 
The quantity of milk decreased 15.5 and 10.5 per cent, respect- 
ively. The quality was impaired, its keeping ability being low- 
ered, and the acidity increased 1 to 2 degrees. 

632. Effects of grooming. — In experiments by Backhaus^ with 
cows, a difference of 2.5 to 8.3 per cent, in the yield of milk and 
fat was noted in favor of grooming cows. 

» Milch Zeit., 1896, p. 331. 

2 Jour. f. Laudw., 41, 1893, p. 332. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

STATION TESTS WITH FEEDING STUFFS FOE DAIRY COWS. 



I. Concentrated Feeds. 

633. Whole corn compared with corn and cob meal. — In a feed- 
ing trial with seven cows at the Ohio Station, ^ corn and cob meal 
fed with hay was compared with ear corn. The average yield 

per cow during a fourteen- day period was: 

Daily milk Per cent, fat 

yield. iu milk. 

When fed corn and cob meal... 16.2 pounds. 3.57 

When fed whole ear corn 15.7pounds. 3.76 

It will be seen that during the corn and cob meal period the 
yield of milk was one -half pound more daily for each cow. This 
has little significance, however, when it is remembered that the 
period of lactation was advanced two weeks during the second 
trial. (158, 382, 539) 

634. Waste in feeding whole ear corn. — At the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion, Woll, 2 observing unbroken grains of corn in the excrement 
of cows fed dry ear corn and also those getting ear corn in silage, 
ascertained the amount of grain passed by the cows during twenty- 
four hours. The droppings were washed and the grains of corn 
collected. The figures in the table give the weight of the corn 
calculated to the same water content as when fed: 

Amount of corn found in excrement of coivs — Wisconsin Station. 

Cow fed 
silage 
corn. 



Weight of corn as fed, pounds 

Weight of droppings for twenty-four hours, 

pounds 

Undigested kernels of corn, quarts 

Weight of kernels, pounds 

Per cent, of corn appearing in droppings 

1 Kept. 1883. 2 Kept. 1892. 




414 



Feeds and Feeding. 



We learn by this table that over 18 per cent, of the dry ear 
corn and only 3 per cent, of the silage corn passed through the 
alimentary tract in practically unbroken form. The voided corn 
was tested in a seed germinator, 43 per cent, of the dry corn grains 
and none of the silage kernels germinating. (538) 

635. Maize feed versus corn meal and bran. — At the Vermont 
Station, Hills ^ compared maize feed with corn meal and bran, 
equal x)arts by weight, for dairy cows. The roughage consisted 
of two parts of hay and one of silage. 

Maize feed versus corn meal and bran — Vermont Station. 



Feed eaten. 


Products. 


Roughage. 


Maize feed. 


Corn meal 
and bmn. 


Milk. 


Fat. 


Lbs. 
2,424 


Lbs. 
1,000 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

2,388 
2,164 


Lbs. 
114.3 


2,427 


1,008 


102.2 








In favor of ma 


ize feed 


224 


12.1 







636. Gluten feed compared with corn meal and bran. — In trials 
by Hills at the Vermont Station ^ cows were fed daily eight 
pounds of corn meal and bran, equal parts by weight, during the 
first and third periods. In the second period gluten feed was 
substituted for half the corn and bran mixture. 

Gluten feed, corn meal and bran compared with corn meal and bran 
only — Vermont Station. 



Feed eaten. 


Products. 


lloughage. 


Gluten with 

coru meal and 

bran. 


Corn meal 

and bran 

only. 


Milk. 


Fat. 


Lbs. 
2 846 


Lbs. 
1,000 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

3,048 
2,760 


Lbs. 
142.2 


2,924 


1,000 


125.6 








In favor of glu 


ten feed 


288 


16.6 







1 Bui. 48. 

2 Loc. cit. 



Station Tests mth Feeds for Dairy Cows. 



415 



Because of the heavy character of the gluten feed it was deemed 
advisable that not over one -half of the concentrates in the ration 
consist of this material. The roughage was of equal parts silage 
and hay, by weight. 

There was a gain of 10.4 per cent, of milk and 13.2 per cent, 
of fat by substituting gluten feed for half the corn meal and bran 
of the ration. 

The results of this trial and that with maize feed substantiate 
the claim of high nutritive value for these by-products of the 
glucose and starch factories. (161-4) 

637. Gluten meal compared with cotton-seed meal. — At the 
Maine Station, ^ Bartlett fed six cows, averaging 900 pounds each, 
for two months on rations containing cotton-seed meal and gluten 
meal, with the results shown in the table: 

Feeding cotton-seed meal and gluten meal — Maine Station. 



Ration. 


Average daily 

products, per 

cow. 




Milk. 


Fat. 


Timothy hay, 15 pounds... 
Silage, 20 pounds 


Gluten meal, 3 pounds 

Corn meal, 2 pounds 


Lbs. 
18.6 


Lbs. 
0.92 




Bran, 2 pounds 














Timothy hay, 15 pounds... 
Silage, 20 pounds 


Cotton-seed meal, 2 pounds 
Corn meal, 2.5 pounds 


18.9 


0.96 


Bran, 3 pounds 















Bartlett concludes: "The foregoing data indicate that gluten 
meal is fully equal to cotton-seed meal when fed in sufficient 
quantity to make the amount of digestible nutrients equal in each 
ration. It is not equal to cotton-seed meal pound for pound as a 
source of protein, as it contains, on an average, about one-quarter 
less of that nutrient. It makes a very good quality of butter, but 
slightly softer than that made from cotton-seed meal when fed in 
the quantity used in this experiment." (161-4, 210-12, 216-17) 

638. Wheat meal compared with corn meal. — At the Maine Sta- 
tion, 2 Bartlett also compared wheat meal with corn meal, six cows 

» Kept. 1896. 2 Kept. 1895. 



416 



Feeds and Feeding. 



being used. In tlie first and third periods all received the follow- 
ing ration: Timothy hay, eighteen pounds; wheat meal, five 
pounds; cotton-seed meal, two pounds. In the second period corn 
meal was substituted for wheat meal. 

Wheat meal compared with corn meal — Maine Station. 





Average daily 
yield. 


Weight. 


Water 
drank 
daily. 




Milk. 


Fat. 


Gain. 


Loss. 


Period I, wheat meal 


Lbs. 

19.7 
18.8 
17.0 


Lbs. 

.87 
.85 
.84 


Lbs. 
3 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
61 


Period II, corn meal 


58 


64 


Period III, wheat meal 


6 


68 









Making allowance for decreased milk flow as the lactation 
period lengthened, the results may be regarded as practically 
equal. There was a slight gain in weight by the cows during the 
two wheat-meal periods, while when corn meal was fed there was 
a 'decided decrease. We conclude that wheat meal is at least 
equal to corn meal as a feed for the dairy cow. (166-8) 

639. Wheat meal compared with mixed grain. — At the Ontario 
Agricultural College, ^ Dean fed one lot of cows wheat meal, and 
another mixed grain consisting of one-half oats and one-fourth 
each of ground barley and peas. Nine pounds of grain were 
fed daily with hay, straw and silage, the trial lasting sixty days. 

Feeding wheat meal in comparison with mixed grain meal — Ontario 
Agricultural College. 



Grain fed. 


Milk per cow 
daily. 


Total increase in 
live weight. 


Cost of produc- 
ing 100 lbs. of 
milk. 


Mixed meal 


26.8 pounds. 
24.1 liouuds. 


38.5 pounds. 
10. pounds. 


46 cents. 


Wheat meal 


57 cents. 







The milk flow was better maintained on the mixed-meal ration 
than on the ground-wheat ration. The cost of producing 100 
pounds of milk was calculated on the basis of ordinary Ontario 



Rept. 1893. 



station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 



417 



prices for cattle feeds, viz. : liay $6.50, straw $2, silage $1.75, per 
ton; oats 24^ cents, peas 57 cents, barley 38 cents and wlieat 60 
cents, per busliel. (166-8) 

640. Wheat bran compared with mixed grain. — During tlie years 
1893-94 extensive feeding trials were conducted by the Copen- 
hagen Experiment Station i on the estates of dairy farmers. In 
these trials 447 cows were used. One lot of cows on each estate 
was fed a mixture of barley and oats; a second was fed one-half 
wheat bran and one-half grain mixture, while a third lot received 
wheat bran only. The results briefly summarized were as follows : 

Feeding mixed grain and lolieat bran to 4-^7 dairy cows — Copen- 
hagen {Denmarlc) Station. 



Average milk yield per cow, pounds 

Average per cent, solids in railk 

Average per cent, fat in milk 



Mixed 
grain. 



21.9 
11.66 
3.04 



One-half 
grain, one- 
half bran. 



22 1 
ll!75 
3.11 



Wheat 
bran 
only. 



22.1 
11.77 
3.12 



These results agree closely, and from them we may assume that 
wheat bran is of equal feeding value for milch cows with a 
mixture of barley and oats. 

The findings of this test are of great value because of the large 
number of cows used in it and from the further fact that the 
animals were on various large farms under normal conditions, 
while all the observations were taken and recorded by Station 
officials. (175) 

641. Shorts compared with wheat bran. — The Copenhagen Sta- 
tion also conducted trials with wheat shorts in comparison with 
wheat bran, 240 cows on several estates being used in trials dur- 
ing the years 1893-94. The shorts gave a slightly larger milk 
yield on three of the estates, but the difference was small. 

Combining the results of this trial with those reported in the 
preceding article, we learn that bran, shorts and mixed grain are 
practically of equal value for feeding the dairy cow. (174) 



29th Kept. 1894. 
27 



418 



Feeds and Feeding. 



642. Ground oats compared with wheat bran. — At the Wiscon- 
sin Station, i Woll compared ground oats with wheat bran in two 
feeding trials with six cows. Ten pounds of these concentrates 
were given each cow daily with the results shown below: 

Returns from, feeding ground oats and bran — Wisconsin Station. 



Ground oats 

Bran 

In favor of oats 



Daily milk 
vield. 



Lbs. 

21.07 
ly.l9 



1.88 



Daily fat 
yield. 



Lbs. 

.933 
.84.5 



.088 



Per cent, 
fat. 



4.65 
4.68 



—.03 



Here is a return of 10 per cent, more milk and fat from oats 
than from bran. The high value of oats in the dairy is well 
illustrated in this trial. (175, 186) 

643. Sorghum-seed meal. — At the Xew Jersey Station, ^ Cook 
tested the relative merits of amber cane sorghum-seed meal and 
corn meal for milk production. Three cows were fed the follow- 
ing ration per 1,000 pounds live weight: Twenty pounds brewers' 
grains, nine pounds corn meal, five pounds corn stover, and five 
pounds bran. After receiving this ration twenty days, sorghum- 
seed meal was gradually substituted for the corn meal until it re- 
placed the latter — the same amount, nine pounds, being fed. 
When this feed had been used twenty days the ration was grad- 
ually changed back to corn meal. The results for the three 
periods are as follows: 

Period I. Cows fed corn meal averaged 28.1 pounds of milk each daily. 
Period II. Cows fed sorghum meal averaged 24.6 pounds of milk each 

daily. 
Period III. Cows fed corn meal averaged 27 pounds of milk each daily. 

It was observed that when the full sorghum-meal ration was 
reached the yield of milk dropped immediately. On the other 
hand, when changing from sorghum back to corn meal there was 
an increase in the milk flow. These trials show that sorghum 
meal is 10 per cent, less valuable than corn meal for milk pro- 
duction. (197) 

1 Rept. 1890. 2 Kept. 1882. 



station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 



419 



644. Cotton seed and its by-products. — At the Mississippi Sta- 
tion/ Lloyd tested cotton seed and its by-products in various 
forms for milk and butter production with the results summarized 
in the foUowinsr table r^ 



Feeding cotton seed and its hy-products to dairy coics — Mississippi 

Station. 



Ration. 



9.5 

10.6 

10.4 

9.9 
9.5 

9.5 

Four 

7.8 



grade Jerseys and one 
grade Uolstein. (a) 

pounds mw cotton seed, 
9.2 pounds Bermuda 
hay 

pounds roasted cotton 
seed, 10.5 pounds Ber- 
muda hay 

pounds boiled cotton 
seed, 8.5 pounds Ber- 
muda hay 

pounds corn meal, 9.9 
pounds Bermuda hay... 

pounds raw cotton seed, 
8.5 pounds timothy 
hay 

pounds raw cotton seed, 
10.9 pounds Bermuda 
hay 



9.9 



8.8 



grade Jerseys and one 
grade Uolstein. (6) 

pounds raw cotton seed, 
7.7 pounds Bermuda 
hay, 10 pounds silage ... 

pounds raw cotton seed, 

4.9 pounds timothy 

hay, 9.8 pounds silage ... 

pounds boiled cotton 
seed, 7.5 pounds Ber- 
muda hay, 9.9 pounds 
silage 

pounds boiled cotton 
seed, 6.5 pounds timo- 
thy nay, 9.9 pounds sil- 
age 

pounds cotton -seed 
meal, 10.2 pounds Ber- 
muda hay, 9.9 pounds 
silage 

pounds cotton -seed 

meal, 8.8 pounds timo- 
thy hay, 9.9 pounds sil- 



55 



Days. 

35 

35 

35 
35 

35 

35 

a5 

35 
35 
35 
35 
35 



S-9 



4) a 



Gal- 
lons. 



1.10 

1.22 

.97 
1.47 

.91 

1.30 

1.09 
.97 

1.56 

1.30 

1.61 

1.51 



13 

fi3 



Per 

cent. 



5.62 

5.55 

5.64 
3.86 

5.43 

5.38 

5.95 
5.73 

5.84 

5.87 

5.74 

5.70 



-d a 
o o 

o Sb'S 



Cents. 

7.7 

8.5 

8.8 
12.8 

12.8 

12.3 

6.3 

8.3 

4.9 
8.4 



12.6 



?" rt t" s 



Pound. 



.545 

.439 
.455 

.396 

.560 

.522 
.438 

.717 

.602 

.680 

.685 



"O^ 



8^ 



Cents. 

17.4 

19.1 

19.6 
41.4 

29.5 

28.5 

13.2 
18.4 

10.9 

18.1 

22. 

28.1 



(a) Bui. 15.— Cost of feed in these six experiments, per ton: Raw cotton seed, $fi; 
boiled cotton seed, $6.30; roasted cotton seed, S7.20; cotton-seed meal, $20; Bermuda 
hay. »12.50; corn meal, $25; timothy hay, $20.80. 

(6) Bui. 21. — Roasted and boiled cotton seed and cotton-seed meal were same prices 
as in note (a); Bermuda hay, $10; timothy hay, $21.46; and silage $2 per ton. 

1 Buls. 15, 21. 

2 The Cotton Plant: Its History, etc., p. 412. 



420 



Feeds and Feeding. 



It will be seen that the cheapest returns were obtained from 
feeding boiled cotton seed, Bermuda hay and silage; next in 
economy came raw cotton seed, while cotton-seed meal, at the 
price charged, stood third in cost. Cotton seed was found to be 
much cheaper than corn meal. (216-17, 723) 

645. Cotton-seed meal compared with bran. — At the Pennsyl- 
vania Station, ' Hunt obtained about one-fifth more milk when the 
cows were fed cotton-seed meal in place of bran, the cotton-seed 
meal (six pounds) constituting about three -fifths of the concen- 
trates and about one-fourth of the total feed eaten. The percent- 
ages of fat in the milk were not influenced by changes in feed. 

646. Linseed meal versus cotton-seed meal. — At the Pennsyl- 
vania Station, ^' Waters and Hess compared linseed meal with cot- 
ton-seed meal. Nine cows were used in this trial, the ration in 
one period consisting of cotton-seed meal, chopped wheat and corn 
stover; later, the cows were fed the same ration, except that lin- 
seed meal (old process) was substituted for the cotton-seed meal. 
The results of the trial were as follows: 

Linseed meal (old process) and cotton-seed meal compared — Penn- 
sylvania Station. 



Feeds given. 



Oil meal or cotton-seed meal 

Chopped wheat 

Corn stover 

Digestible nutrients 

Nutritive ratio 

Milk 

Butter 

Solids not fat 

Average per cent, fat in milk 

Digestible matter for 100 pounds milk 
Digestible matter for 1 pound butter... 

1 Rept. 1891. 2 Rept. 1895. 



Cows fed on — 



Linseed meal. 



Cotton-seed 
meal. 



Ration. 



5.99 pounds. 
5.99 pounds. 
9.31 pounds. 



12.74 pounds. 
1 :4.4 



5.26 pounds. 
6.69 pounds. 
9.28 pounds. 



12.87 pounds. 
1 :3.9 



Product, 9 cows, 30 days. 
4,087.7 pounds. 



258.3 pounds. 
379.8 pounds. 



5.1 



4,381.9 pounds. 
254.0 pounds. 
405.8 pounds. 



4.7 



Summary. 



91. 2 pounds. 
14.4 pounds. 



87 . 7 pounds. 
15.0 pounds. 



station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 



421 



Though the rations are not identical they so nearly coincide in 
digestible nutrients that the results are comparable. It will be 
seen that the cows receiving cotton-seed meal were fed slightly 
more digestible matter with a somewhat narrower nutritive ratio. 

In these trials cotton- seed meal produced more milk than did 
linseed meal, while the latter gave somewhat better returns in 
butter. All things considered, neither feed showed an advantage 
over the other. (206-216) 

647. Oil cake compared with grain. — During feeding trials with 
cows conducted by the Copenhagen Station ^ in 1891 and 1892, 
the comparative feeding value of grain and oil cake of various 
kinds was studied, two hundred and forty cows on various estates 
being used in the trials. The grain fed was a mixture of barley 
and oats; the oil cake consisted of equal parts by weight of palm 
nut, rape seed, and sunflower-seed cake. In each series of ex- 
periments, three lots of cows were fed as follows: Lot I, f grain, 
^ oil cake; Lot 11, | grain, | oil cake; Lot III, ^ grain and f oil 
cake. The yield and fat content of the milk obtained during the 
experiments are as shown below, the figures being the average of 
the experiments continued for two years: 

Feeding grain and oil cake in varying proportions to 2Ifi dairy cows — 
Copenhagen {Denmark) Station. 



Average daily milk yield, pounds. 
Average percent, of milk solids... 
Average per cent, of fat 



Lot I. 

i grain, 

i oil cake. 



21.7 
11.90 
3.20 



Lot 11. 

J grain, 
J oil cake. 



22.9 
11.85 
3.17 



Lot III. 

I grain, 
i oil cake. 



23.4 
11.84 
3.20 



The table shows that for each one hundred pounds of oil cake 
substituted for the same amount of mixed grain there was a gain of 
sixty-six pounds of milk, provided the oil cake did not constitute 
more than half of the grain ration. The feeding of this amount 
of oil cake in the ration therefore proved economical. 

648. Dried distillery grains compared with oats. — Experiments 
were made in 1893 by Gripenberg at the Mustiala (Finland) 



1 27th Kept. 1892. 



422 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Agricultural College ^ with four milcli cows, in a comparison of 
dried distillers' grains with oats for milk and butter production. 
Hay and roots were fed in addition to the grain, the results being 
as follows: 

Oais compared with dried distillers' grains for dairy cows — Mustiala 
{Finland) Agricultural College. 





Daily yield. 


Per cent, fat. 




Milk. 


Fat. 


Oats 


Lbs. 

28.9 
o2.3 


Lbs. 

.88 
.96 


3.05 


Distillers' grains 


2.97 







The dried distillers' grains produced about 12 per cent, more 
milk and 9 per cent, more fat than did the oats, thus showing a 
high feeding value. 

II. Coarse Feed. 

649. Upland prairie hay versus timothy hay. — At the Minnesota 
Station, 2 Haecker compared these hays as feed for dairy cows. The 
prairie hay was composed of native grasses grown on the uplands 
of Minnesota, and was of excellent quality. The timothy hay 
was medium fine, rather short, cut early and properly cured, 
showing fine aroma and good color. Sixteen cows were used in 
the trial, each group receiving the same quantity of grain and 
liay. The experiment lasted about three months, with the re- 
sults shown in the table: 

Comparison of native upland prairie hay and timothy hay — Minne- 
sota Station. 





Feed given. 


Digestible nutrients in 
rations. 


Returns. 




Grain. 


Sil- 
age. 


Hay. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


Ether 
extract. 


Milk. 


Fat. 


Prairie hay 

Timothy hay.. 


Lbs. 

2,013 
2,016 


Lbs. 

1,680 
1,680 


Lbs. 

1,840 
1,840 


Lbs. 

2.1 

2.2 


Lbs. 

12.5 
13.1 


Lbs. 

.69 
.74 


Lbs. 

2,586 
2,547 


Lbs, 

120.7 
121.3 



1 Biet. 1893. 



' Bui. 35. 



station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 



423 



It will be seen that almost identical quantities of milk and fat 
were produced by the two lots of cows, the excess of milk being 
in favor of prairie hay, and the excess of fat in favor of timothy. 
From this we conclude that upland prairie hay of good quality is 
fully as valuable for feeding dairy cows as a good grade of timothy 
hay. 

650. Japan clover hay versus Bermuda hay. — In an experiment 
with sixty cows conducted at the Mississippi Station i by Lloyd, 
half were fed mixed hay (Japan clover and some chicken corn) and 
the other half Bermuda hay. Cotton seed, cotton- seed meal or 
corn meal was fed in connection with the hay. The mixed hay wa,s 
valued at $7 and the Bermuda hay at $10 per ton. The experi- 
ment was continued about twelve weeks. The average results 
obtained per cow daily were as follows, the yield of fat given in 
the table being calculated from the yield of butter by multiplying 
by .82, the percentage of pure fat contained: 

Feeding mixed hay and Bermuda hay to dairy cows — Mississippi 

Station. 



Daily yield. 



Milk. Fat, 



Per cent, 
fat. 



Average cost of one — 



Gal. milk. Lb. butter. 



Bermuda hay. 
Mixed hay 



Lbs. 

8.6 
8.0 



Lbs. 

.35 
.34 



4.08 
4.23 



Cents. 

11.3 
10.6 



Cents. 

26.6 
24.3 



Bermuda hay produced somewhat more milk and slightly more 
fat than did the Japan clover hay. At the prices charged the 
mixed hay was the cheaper; at equal prices there would be little 
difference in cost of products. (296) 

651. Timothy hay versus meadow fox-tail hay. — An experiment 
was conducted at Mustiala (Finland) Agricultural College^ for 
the purpose of obtaining data concerning the relative value of 
timothy and meadow fox-tail (Alopeeurus) hay for milk and butter 
production. The cows received similar quantities of both kinds 
of hay, ranging from 11.7 to 17.6 pounds per head per day, and 
oat straw ad libitum. The same amount of concentrates and roots 



i Bui. 13. 



2 Biet. 1893. 



424 



Feeds and Feedinj. 



was fed to each cow. Ten cows were included in tlie experiment, 
with the daily yield of milk and fat as follows: 

Feeding timothy and meadow fox-tail hay to dairy cows — Mustiala 
(^Finland) Agricultural College. 



Daily yield. 



Milk. 



Fat. 



Per cent. fat. 



Timothy hay 

Alopecurus hay. 



Lbs. 

23.5 

24.8 



Lbs. 

.71 

.77 



2.97 
3.08 



The fox- tail hay produced 5.5 per cent, more milk and 8.4 per 
C€nt. more fat than the timothy. 

652, Fodder corn compared with timothy hay. — At the Penn- 
sylvania Station, i Hunt and Caldwell fed fodder corn and timothy 
hay to cows to determine the relative merits of these two common 
roughage crops. There were four cows in each lot, the trial last- 
ing forty-five days, with the results shown in the table: 

Fodder corn versus timothy hay — Pennsylvania Station. 



Hay or fodder eaten 

Ground oats eaten 

Bran eaten 

Total milk yielded 

Total fat yielded 

Gain or loss of cows in weight 



Cows fed 
hay. 



Lbs. 

4,237 
540 
540 



3,084 
116 



84 gain. 



Cows fed 
fodder corn. 



Lbs. 

4,102 
540 
540 



2,921 
120 



23 loss. 



It will be seen that the cows ate somewhat more hay than fod- 
der, the grain fed being the same in both cases. More milk 
was obtained from the hay, but the fodder corn yielded more 
butter, the cows in this lot giving slightly richer milk than the 
others. The cows fed hay gained in weight, while those on fod- 
der corn lost. The trial shows these feeds to be substantially 
equal, pound for pound. This being true, the high value of 



Kept. 1892. 



Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 425 

fodder corn is apparent; for while two tons of timothy hay per 
acre is a good return, these investigators report that the fodder 
com used in the trial yielded at the rate of 8,885 pounds per 
acre. The trial suggests the possibility that timothy hay con- 
duces to the storage of fat in the body of the cow, while fodder 
corn turns the fat into the milk. (250) 

653. Corn stover versus mixed hay and clover hay. — At the 
Wisconsin Station^ the writer compared corn stover with mixed 
hay and clover hay for dairy cows, under the following conditions: 
A crop of yellow dent corn yielding 4,490 pounds of stalks when 
dried in the shock, and 4,941 pounds of ears per acre, was har- 
vested in the usual manner. After drying, the corn was husked 
and the stalks reserved for feeding. Uncut stalks were fed in 
comparison with uncut hay. The mixed hay consisted of one- 
third clover and two-thirds timothy. The clover hay used wavS 
from medium red clover, cut early to preserve the leaves and 
heads in good condition. Four good cows were used, forming 
two lots of two each, one lot getting hay, while the other was fed 
stover. After three weeks the feeding was reversed, and the trial 
continued for the same period. The concentrates of the ration 
consisted of five parts corn meal and seven parts wheat bran by 
weight, fed drj\ The results of the trial are here summarized. 

Comparing corn stover with mixed hay, when each was sup- 
plemented by 280 pounds of corn meal and 392 pounds of wheat 
bran, it was found that — 

2,374 pounds of corn stover returned 1,120.7 j^ounds of milk, making 57 
pounds of butter. 

755 pounds of mixed hay returned 1,064 pounds of milk, making 56.1 
pounds of butter. 

Comparing corn stover with clover hay, grain being fed as 
above, it was found that — 

1,867 pounds of corn stover returned 1,079.3 pounds of milk, making 
52.2 pounds of butter. 

043 pounds of clover hay returned 1,059 pounds of milk, making 54.5 
pounds of butter. 

The returns being practically equal, we conclude that one ton 
of mixed clover and timothy hay is worth three tons of corn stover, 
or corn stalks, fed as were these. 

1 Rept. 1884. 



426 Feeds and Feeding. 

In the second trial one ton of clover hay was found to be worth 
somewhat more than three tons of corn stover. 

As before noted, the corn stover was fed uncut, and the parts 
left uneaten, day by day, were saved and weighed. It was found 
that thirty -four per cent, of the fodder remained unconsumed in 
the coarser portions of the corn stalks. (251) 

Dairymen will be interested in learning the quantity of feed 
required for a unit of milk and butter in the above trial. These 
are given in the following table: 

Feed for 100 pounds of milk and 100 pounds of butter as shown in the 
trial just reported. 

When feeding corn stover. 

J^or 100 pounds of milk. For 100 j)ounds of butter. 

193 pounds stover. 3, 880 pounds of stover. 

60 pounds corn meal and bran. 1,233 pounds corn meal and bran. 

When feeding mixed hay. 

71 pounds mixed hay. 1 , 348 pounds mixed hay. 

02 pounds corn meal and bran. 1 , 200 pounds corn meal and bran. 

When feeding clover hay. 

60 pounds clover hay. 1,179 pounds clover hay. 

63 pounds corn meal and bran. 1 , 231 pounds corn meal and bran. 

654. Silage compared with hay. — At the Maine Station, ^ Jordan 
compared silage made from various kinds of corn with ''good 
hay" (mostly timothy) for milk production. Four cows were 
fed, first hay, later hay and silage, and again hay. During the 
M'hole period each cow received the same amount of concentrates 
daily. The following results were secured: 

On hay and grain Feb. 17 to Mch. 9 21.7 pounds milk. 

On hay, silage and grain. ...Mch. 10 to May 11 22.5 pounds milk. 

On hay and grain May 12 to May 25 19.6 pounds milk. 

Here is an increase when changing from hay to silage and hay, 
and a decrease when changing back from silage to hay. The 
effects of the two feeds are shown in another table by the same 
investigator, who groups the milk yield of the four cows in 

1 Ilept. 1889. 



Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 427 

fourteen- day periods just preceding or following a change in the 
roughage supplied. 

Total yield of milk, four cows, 14 days. 

On hay 1,212 pounds. 

Changed to silage and hay 1,294 pounds. 

An increase of 82 jiounds, or 7 per cent. 

On silage and hay 1,200 pounds. 

Changed to hay 1,100 pounds. 

A decrease of 100 pounds, or 8 per cent. 

"We observe that when the cows were changed from hay to silage 
and hay there was an increase of 7 per cent, in the milk flow, and 
when changed back a shrinkage of 8 per cent. There was no 
difference in the composition of the milk because of the different 
feeds. Jordan concludes: ''In this experiment the addition of 
silage to the ration resulted in a somewhat increased production 
of milk solids, which was not caused by an increase in the digesti- 
ble food material eaten, but which must have been due either to 
the superior value of the nutrients of the silage over those of the 
hay or to the general physiological effect of feeding a greater 
variety of foods. In other words, 8. 8 pounds of silage proved to 
be somewhat superior to 1.98 pounds of hay (mostly timothy), 
the quantity of digestible material being the same in the two 
cases. . . . Assuming the digestible matter of hay and silage 
to be of equal value, pound for pound, when hay is worth $10 
per ton, silage of the kind used in this experiment would be 
worth $2.25 per ton. But this silage contained more water than 
the average. . . . Had it been of average quality, then the 
ton value reckoned on the above basis would be $2.62. But in 
this case we should give the silage the credit of the increased 
milk production, which seems to have been at the rate of 85 
pounds of milk to each ton of silage." (390-91) 

655. Silage versus fodder corn. — At the New Jersey Station ^ 
Voorhees and Lane conducted a trial with silage and fodder corn 
for milk production. 

A field of fifteen acres was planted to corn in rows three feet 
six inches apart, with the stalks eight inches apart in the row. 

1 Bui. 122. 



428 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The crop was liarvested the first week in September, when the ears 
were beginning to glaze. The corn from twelve acres was run 
through the feed-cutter and placed in a silo, 11.25 tons being the 
average yield of green forage per acre. The crop of three acres 
was harvested by cutting and shocking in the usual manner. 
After curing for one month the forage was stored in the barn, the 
average yield being 4.1 tons of dry fodder per acre. The cost of 
placing the crop in the silo was $11.22 per acre. (400) The cost 
for cutting, shocking, storing the fodder and running it through 
the feed- cutter was $10.31 per acre. 

The total losses in dry matter were assumed to be practically 
equal for the two methods. The changes in the fodder were found 
to be an increase in crude fiber and a decrease in protein, ash and 
nitrogen-free extract. The changes in the silo resulted in the 
conversion of about two-thirds of the albuminoids into amides. 
(385-7) Two lots of four cows each were fed silage and fodder 
respectively, the feeds for the lots being reversed at the close of 
the first period in order that both lots might be tested upon the 
same feed. The rations were so compounded that the fodder or 
silage furnished at least one-half the total dry matter and two- 
thirds the digestible carbohydrates. The silage was eaten with- 
out waste, while a portion of the fodder was left uneaten. Both 
lots of cows gained in weight during the trial. The production 
of milk and fat is shown in the following table: 

Feeding silage and dry forage to dairy coivs — New Jersey Station. 





No. of 
days. 


Total 
yield of 
"^milk. 


Av. 

yield 
per day 
per cow 


Av. per 

cent, of 

fat. 


Total 
yield of 

fat. 


Av. fat 
per day 
per cow 


Silage 


24 

24 


Lbs. 

2,276.2 

2,017.9 

2o8.3 

12.8 


Lbs. 

23.7 
21.0 

2.7 


3.78 

3. 80 

-0.08 


Lbs. 

86.15 
78.02 
8.13 
10.4 


Lbs. 
.897 


Dry fodder ration 


.813 


Gain fx'oin silage 


.084 


Per cent, of increase .... 

















It will be seen that the silage ration produced 12.8 per cent, 
more milk and 10.4 Y>ev cent, more fat than did the dry forage. 

656. Rape for mHch cows. — At the Ontario Agricultural Col- 
lege, 1 Shaw investigated the ^'alue of rape for milch cows. Foiu' 



Kept. 1892. 



Station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 429 

cows were separated into two lots and fed during four periods 

lasting fifty-three days. Eape was fed during Periods II and IV. 

Tlie cows were pastured during Period I, and fed hay and silage 

during Period III. Five pounds of meal were fed daily per head 

throughout the trial. Lot I received forty pounds of rape per 

day, and hay ad libitum; Lot 11 was fed rape ad libitum, consuming 

on an average seventy-six pounds daily. The average daily milk 

yield for each lot was as follows: 

Rape. No rape. 

Lot 1 19.13 pounds. 17.25 pounds. 

Lot II 18.20 pounds. 17.74 pounds. 

The rape was fed both before and after milking without im- 
parting any perceptible taint to the milk in either case. The 
results obtained are promising for rape as a feed for the dairy 
cow. (334-5) 

657. Roots versus concentrated feeds. — At the Copenhagen 
Station, ^ eighteen series of experiments were conducted for three 
consecutive years with 636 cows separated into 62 lots. The 
addition of 40 pounds of mangels or 50 pounds of turnips to an 
ordinary ration for milch cows increased the daily milk yield by 
2.75 pounds, the cows increasing 3.63 pounds per head in live 
weight, eating 3.08 pounds less straw daily. In two preceding 
years, 2.86 and 1.76 pounds more milk were obtained on heavy 
root feeding, the average weight being 5.5 and 3.74 pounds 
more, and the quantity of straw eaten .55 and 1.98 pounds less 
per head daily. No appreciable diiference in the chemical com- 
position of the milk was observed resulting from the more intense 
feeding. These experiments show that one pound of concentrates, 
made up of grain, bran and oil cake, proved equal to ten pounds 
of mangels in feeding dairy cows. There was no appreciable dif- 
ference in the water content of the milk produced by feeding 
varying quantities of roots. The water found in the milk was 
within .24 of one per cent, for the different lots of cows, the lowest 
water content appearing in the milk from cows receiving the 
largest quantity of roots. These extensive experiments completely 
refute the charge that milk can be indirectly watered by feeding 
roots. (325) 

1 20th Kept. 1890. 



430 Feeds and Feeding, 

658. Feeding potatoes. — According to Cornevin^ milch cows 
may be maintained exclusively on a ration of potatoes, eating 
a1x)ut seven per cent, of their weight daily. Feeding exclu- 
sively on potatoes increases the milk flow, but the cows shrink 
in weight and take their feed with repugnance if it is continued 
for any length of time. Steamed potatoes are readily eaten by 
milch cows, but, if fed exclusively, digestion troubles will soon 
appear and rumination be disturbed or suspended. 

In feeding potatoes in connection with other feeds, Cornevin 
obtained the best rasults when the potatoes furnished fifty per 
cent, of the total dry matter of the ration. It was found that raw 
l^otatoes favored milk secretion, while steamed potatoes increased 
the live weight and produced a deposition of fat. (316, 484—6, 
866, 897) 

III. Miscellaneous Feeding Substances. 

659. Feeding milk and skim milk. — At the Iowa Station, 2 Wil- 
son fed full milk and afterwards skim milk to dairy cows. The 
cows shrunk in weight on full milk and gained on skim milk. 
The results obtained were fairly satisfactory. 

Holdefleiszs recommends feeding skim milk to cows. He states 
that they easily digest rations containing five, six or even eight 
liters (quarts) of skim milk, even if sour; that skim milk has a 
favorable influence on the production of milk, and that it saves 
grain. The practice has been followed by a few American dairy- 
men, who report good results. * (357, 736, 869-71, 886-8) 

660. Whey for milch cows. — Schrodt^ fed whey to milch cows 
at the Kiel Dairy Station. The ration consisted of 11 pounds 
clover hay, 5.5 pounds barley straw, 10 pounds mangels, 5.5 
pounds wheat bran and 2.2 pounds palm-nut meal. During one 
period 11 pounds of sweet whey were fed and during another 22 
pounds. The whey had a favorable influence on the quantity of 
milk yielded, and no deleterious efiect on the quality of the but- 
ter. (359, 873, 887, 889) 

1 Jahresber. Agr. Chemie, 1894, p. 480. ^ Bui. 17. 

3 Allg. Ztg. f. deutsehe Landw., Vol. 16, No.?; Buerstenbinder, Jahresb., 
1886, p. 444. * Bui. 38, Wis. Expt. iSta. 

Landw. Wocheubl. f. Schl. Hoi., 1882, p. 237; Jahresber. u. Agr. 
Chemie, 1882, p. 441. 



station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 



431 



661. Fish scrap. — According to Kiihn, ^ milk and butter of 
normal quality were produced on a daily allowance of 2.3 pounds 
of fat-free fish scrap supplied with a variety of other feed, no 
deleterious eifects resulting. (340, 551, 779) 

662. Feeding fat to dairy cows. — At the Cornell Station, ^ Wing 
conducted two trials in which tallow was fed to dairy cows in 
addition to the usual feed. In each trial five cows were used. In 
the first the cows were on pasture, receiving in addition eight 
pounds of grain. In the second they were on winter feed, receiving 
a like allowance of grain. The milk yield and its composition were 
ascertained for one week before the trial began. After this pre- 
liminary period, beef tallow was added to the ration, commencing 
with four ounces j)er day for each cow. \Yhen this was readily 
eaten, more tallow was added, until after the fourth week the 
allowance for each cow reached two pounds daily. With this 
amount added to the ration the trial continued six weeks longer, 
or until the tenth week, at which time tallow was dropped from 
the ration, the observations continuing two weeks longer. In the 
table below appear the results found with two cows by weekly 
periods, these being representative of all the animals under trial: 

Adding tallow to the ration of dairy cows; data, for two cows, repre- 
sentative of ten — Cornell Station. 




* Jahresber. u. Agr. Chemie, 1894, p. 482. 
2 Bui. 92. 



432 . Feeds and Feeding. 

It will be seen that, despite tlie addition of tallow to tlie ration 
in increasing amount up to two pounds per cow daily, there was 
the normal gradual falling off in the milk flow, the percentage of 
fat in the milk remaining substantially the same. With cow No. 2 
there was possibly an increase of three-tenths or four-tenths of one 
jjer cent, fat for a time succeeding the first use of tallow; there was, 
however, a diminution in the milk flow, so that the total fat 
secreted was increased by not more than one- tenth of a pound 
daily, and even this increase might not have been due to the feed- 
ing of tallow. After feeding this cow tallow four weeks, the total 
fat in the milk had fallen below the amount she was giving at the 
time tallow feeding began. Wing concludes: ''In this quite ex- 
tended trial there has been no increase in fat in the milk by feed- 
ing tallow to the cows in addition to a liberal grain ration. These 
results were obtained with ten different cows of two breeds of 
various ages in various periods of lactation, extending over a 
period of ten weeks, for at least six of which they ate two pounds 
per head per day of tallow." 

At the 'Se.w Hampshire Station, i Wood fed cotton-seed oil, 
palm oil, corn oil, cocoauut oil, oleo oil and stearin in an ordi- 
nary ration to cows, and concludes: ''That the first effect of an 
increase of fat in the cow's ration is to increase the per cent, of fat 
in the milk; that with the continuance of such a ration the tend- 
ency is for the milk to return to its normal condition; that the 
increase in fat is due not to the oils, but to the unnatural char- 
acter of the ration." 

663. Feeding potassium chlorid. — Bieler^ fed twenty-five grams 
(about one ounce) of potassium chlorid per day per cow, and 
noticed an appreciable increase in the yield of milk, but the solids 
and fat decreased simultaneously. The effect of the potassium 
chlorid on the milk secretion covered only a few days, when it 
again became normal. 

664. Cooking feed. — Spear^ fed cooked meal to four cows and 
uncooked meal to four others daring a period of thirteen weeks. 
The cows receiving the cooked feed gave six-tenths of a pound of 

» Bui. 20. 

2Hilger's Jahresber., 1893, 403. 

"Trans. High, and Agii. iSoc, p. 1891. 



station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 



433 



milk more per day than those getting uncooked feed, with no 
difference in the quality of the milk. These returns do not pay 
for the labor involved, and are in conformity with the results 
obtained with other farm animals when given cooked feed. (370, 
836) 

665. Feeding grain in form of slop. — It is frequently asserted 
that sloppy feeds increase the milk flow. This matter was tested 
by Dean at the Ontario Agricultural College. * For roughage the 
cows were fed silage and pasture; for concentrates, two pounds 
of ground wheat and four pounds of bran. The results appear 
below: 

Effect of wetting the feed supplied dairy cows — Ontario Station. 



Form of feed. 



Per cent. 

of fat 
in milk. 



Eight coivs. 

Fed dry feed 

Fed wet feed once daily. 
Fed wet feed twice daily 

Six cows. 

Fed dry feed 

Fed wet noon feed 




3.60 
3.63 



There is nothing in the above to indicate that feeding meal in 
the form of slop induces a greater flow or changes the character 
of the milk. Dean's conclusions are, ^ ' This experiment would 
indicate that slopping is an expensive way to feed cows. ' ' 

666. Feeding grain to cows on pasture.— The utility of feeding 
grain to cows on pasture has been studied at the Cornell Station ^ 
during several seasons. 

In the first trial cows receiving grain while on a luxuriant past- 
ure gave less milk, but an equal amount of fat, with those getting 
no grain on the same pasture. 

The next season, with the pastures luxuriant except for a short 
time in midsummer, the lot receiving grain and that without 
grain did equally well. 



1 Rents. 1893-94. 

2 Buls. 13, 22, 36, 49. 



28. 



434 



Feeds and Feeding. 



In the third trial both lots were soiled with grass, one lot get- 
ting grass only^ while the second received grain in addition. In 
this trial the grain-fed cows gave just enough more fat to pay for 
the grain received. 

In order to determine the value of grain for cows on pasture 
under practical conditions, a fourth trial was conducted with 
a herd of cows owned by a New York farmer. This herd, con- 
sisting of sixteen cows which had been lightly fed during the 
winter, was divided into two lots of eight each, all grazing in the 
same pasture. Each cow of Lot I was fed four quarts daily of a 
mixture of two parts corn meal, one part wheat bran and one 
part cotton- seed meal, by weight. The test began May 23. 
August 10, the pastures becoming poor, both lots were fed green 
fodder corn. On September 9, green millet was substituted for 
the fodder corn. October 1, meadow grass was substituted for 
the millet, and this was followed October 13 with pumpkins in 
generous quantity. It will be noted that the cows getting no 
grain were much better fed than those on most farms. The find- 
ings of the trial, which lasted twenty-two weeks, are here pre- 
sented: 



Feeding grain to cows on pasture — 


Trial by Cornell Station. 




LotL 


Lot XL 




Pasture 
with grain. 


Pasture 
without grain. 


Graiii fed, pounds 


5,200 

22,629 

4,931 

28 

166 

53 

4.67 

14.08 


None. 


Milk yield, pounds 


17,698 


Excess in favor of Lot I, pounds 




Per cent, excess 




Gain in weigtit per cow, pounds 


113 


Excess in favor of Lot I, pounds 




Average per cent, of fat in milk 


4.70 


Average per cent, of total solids in milk.. 


14.19 



We learn from the above that the eight cows in Lot I were fed 
5,200 pounds of grain and gave 4,931 pounds or 28 per cent, more 
milk than those getting no grain. Both lots gained in weight, 
Lot I leading by fifty-three pounds on the average for each cow. 
The use of grain did not change the composition of the milk. 



station Tests with Feeds for Dairy Cows. 435 

Eemembering that this trial was conducted on a New York dairy- 
farm, we are taught that even when the midsummer and fall 
shortage in pasture is overcome by the use of fodder corn, pump- 
kins, etc., the result of feeding grain is to secure about one pound 
of milk extra for each pound of grain fed. (555) 

667. Residual effects of grain feeding. — The following year the 
herd was turned to pasture as usual, no grain being supplied to 
either lot. Beginning April 1 a record was kept of milk yields. 
Six cows in each lot of the previous year still remained upon the 
farm. Their yield of milk for six months was as follows: 

Lot I. Lot 11. 

Fed grain Fed no grain 

previous year, previous year. 

Average yield per cow, six months, pounds 3,440 2,960 

In favor of Lot I, pounds 480 

Per cent, in favor of Lot I 16 

It will be seen that the cows in Lot I averaged 480 pounds of 
milk, or 16 per cent, more than those in Lot 11. Commenting 
on this, Eoberts writes: "It seems reasonable to assume that this 
increased production was due to the grain fed the preceding year, 
especially in the case of the younger animals. Indeed it was 
plainly evident that the grain-fed two-year-olds and three-year- 
olds developed into better animals than their stable mates having 
no grain." 

At the Kansas Station, ^ Shelton, when feeding from 11.5 to 
12.5 pounds of corn meal, bran or oats daily to cows on ''ample 
pasturage, consisting for the most part of orchard grass and red 
clover," found an increase in milk flow, due to the grain fed, 
varying from 16 to 31 per cent. ; yet this increase was not suffi- 
cient to directly pay for the extra feed supplied. 

At the North Dakota Station, 2 Kaufman fed bran and shorts 
to cows grazing on a pasture of mixed tame grasses and clover, 
other cows in the same pasture receiving no grain. The results 
show only about 6 per cent, increase in the yield of fat because 
of the grain fed. The cows getting grain increased in weight 
more than the others, but the combined results were too small 
to pay for the grain fed. 

1 Bept. 1888. 2 Bui. 16. 



436 Feeds and Feeding. 

These findings coincide witli those obtained when feeding grain 
to steers on pasture. (555) From all the evidence at hand we 
may conclude that where pastures are luxuriant there are no 
profits from feeding cows grain; where there is not ample feed the 
increased milk returns will certainly compensate for the grain or 
green forage fed. The possible residual effect of feeding cows on 
pasture, as pointed out by Eoberts, is important and should not 
be overlooked. Where pastures are short, unless green forage 
or grain is fed to cows the milk flow will decrease, and later, 
should the pastures revive, it will be found almost impossible to 
bring the milk yield back to the normal. The increase in value 
of the droppings from grain-fed cows should also be considered, 
and will often prove the turning point in favor of a reasonable 
use of grain, especially kinds rich in fertilizing elements. 



CHAPTEE XXVI. 

INFLUENCE OF FEED ON MIIJv — WIDE AND NAREOW RATIONS. 

I. Feed in Relation to Milk. 

668. Possible modifications of milk by feed. — If feed has any 
influence on the character of milk, we may suppose these modifi- 
cations will take one or more of the following forms: 

(a) An increase or decrease in the total quantity of milk yielded. 
(&) Increasing or decreasing the ratio of solids to water in the 
milk. 

(c) Changing the ratio of one or more components of the milk 
with relation to the others. 

(d) Changing the chemical or i)hysical character of one or more 
components. 

(e) Changing the flavor or odor of milk or derivatives from it. 
Let us consider these several possible changes in the order pre- 
sented. 

(a) Effect of Feed on Quantity. 

669. Liberal and meager rations. — Most dairymen have learned 
that under liberal feeding the dairy cow is stimulated to the best 
milk returns within her capacity. So generous is the cow in 
this particular that dairymen will concede they rarely supply 
their animals sufficient feed to induce the largest flow of milk 
possible with all members of the herd. With scant rations or 
those of faulty character, the normal milk flow of the cow is 
diminished, though she will still yield this fluid for a time while 
undergoing starvation. Milk being designed for the support of 
the young, Nature has provided for its supply to the limit of ani- 
mal endurance. 

670. Influence of character of ration. — The abundance and pro- 
portion of the several nutrients in the ration and the quantity of 
inert matter it contains may affect the flow of milk. This is il- 



438 



Peeds and deeding. 



lustrated by an experiment at the Ontario Agricultural College ' 
by Dean, in wliich six cows were divided into three lots of two 
each. One ration consisted exclusively of coarse feed, supplying 
more carbohydrates and less protein than the cow required. It 
contained a large quantity of inert matter. ( 136 ) The next ration 
contained an ample supply of carbohydrates and an over-supply 
of protein, the latter being contained in rich, heavy oil meals. 
The third ration was a normal one. By alternating the rations 
for the three groups of cows, the influence of a decreasing milk 
flow was eliminated from the results, which were as follows: 

Feeding an improperly compounded and a tcell balanced ration to dairy 
coics — Ontario Agricultural College. 



Ration. 


Total 
digesti- 
ble mat- 
ter. 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 


Av. live 
weight. 


Daily 

yield of 

milk. 


Fat. 


A. Silage 50 lbs., hay 6 lbs., 
bran 5 lbs 


Lbs. 

10.79 
15.89 

14.76 

20.27 


1 :8.4 
1 :25.G 

1 :3.9 

1 :6.8 


Lbs. 

1,068 
1,014 

1,091 

1,110 


Lbs. 

29.7 
21.8 

29.3 

31.8 


Per ct. 

3.82 


I. Silage 30 lbs., oat straw 
20 lbs., hay 10 lbs 


3.67 


II. Hay 20 lbs., oil meal 4 
lbs., cotton-seed meal 
51bs 


3.49 


III. Hay 20 lbs., pea meal 4 
lbs., oat meal 5 lbs., 
corn meal 8 lbs 


3.25 







Under A is given the preliminary ration fed to all the cows; 
with this there was an average daily milk yield of 29. 7 pounds. 
"When ration I was fed the cows dropj^ed to 21.8 pounds of milk. 
In this ration we find a liberal allowance of carbohydrates with 
too little protein and too much inert matter. Though the cows 
were filled with feed they were poorly nurtured. Under II there 
was abundant nutrition, but the oil meals given were heavy in 
character and too liberal in quantity for the best results though 
the milk flow was increased to nearly the normal. With III we 
have a better balanced ration; the cows were over-fed, but the 
better character of the ration secured larger returns than were 
possible under previous feeding, the amount of milk now reach- 



Rept. 1891. 



Influence of Feed on Milk, 439 

ing 31.8 pounds daily. It is evident tliat the character and quan- 
tity of feed given directly affect the flow of milk, and over- feed- 
ing or the use of improperly compounded rations may bring poor 
results as well as under- feeding. 

(b) Increasing or Decreasing the Batio of Solids to Water in Milk. 

671. Influence of succulent feed. — It is commonly asserted that 
succulent feed causes thinner milk, i. e., renders it more watery. 
Schmoeger, i at the Proskau Dairy Institute, showed that feeding 
30 liters (quarts) of distillery slop daily per head to a herd of 
37 cows did not affect the comijosition of milk, the average solids 
being 11.83 per cent, and fat 3.29 per cent, with the slop feeding 
as against 11.61 per cent, and 3.28 per cent., respectively, during 
the previous period. 

Trials by Armsby, feeding green and dried grass to milch cows, 
showed no change in the composition of the milk because of the 
more succulent grass. (265) lu the Danish experiments, where 
roots were fed, the highest per cent, of solids appeared in the milk 
of cows receiving the largest quantity of roots. (657) 

672. influence of pasture. — The effect of pasture on the com- 
position of milk should here receive consideration. The Copen- 
hagen Station 2 conducted trials with 240 cows for two years. The 
per cent, of fat in the milk of these cows, when slall-fed with dry 
feed and when on j)asture, was as follows: 

Lot A. Lot B. Lot C. 

Stall feeding, dry feed.... 3.27 per cent. 3.25 per cent. 3.26 per cent. 
Pasture 3.40 per cent. 3.39 per cent. 3.39 per cent. 

There was a slightly higher fat content with cows on pasture in 
all cases. 

At the Vermont Station, ^ Hills, studying the change in com- 
position of milk of cows changed from barn to pasture during 
five years, concludes: ''The evidence appears overwhelming that 
cows on early pasturage — May and June — make not only more, 
but richer, milk than during the last months of their barn life." 
In these cases the higher fat content is always accompanied by a 

1 Milch Zeit., 1883, 129. 
^ Kept. 27, 1891-92. 
8 Rept. 1893. 



440 Feeds and Feeding. 

higher percentage of total solids; that is, the milk from the past- 
ure contains less water. 

Sebelien^ calls attention to similar changes in the composition 
of milk produced by Norwegian cows while on mountain pastures 
as compared with that produced in the valleys. 

Conclusions are not uniform in this particular, as shown by the 
findings of Lawes and Gilbert, ^ who write: "The yield of milk 
was, however, in a much greater degree increased by grazing 
than by any other change in the food ; and with us, at any rate, 
the influence of roots comes next in order to that of grass, 
though far behind it, in this respect. But with grazing, as has 
been shown, the percentage composition of the milk is consider- 
ably reduced; though, owing to the greatly increased quantity 
yielded, the amount of constituents removed in the milk whilst 
grazing may, nevertheless, be greater per head per day than 
under any other conditions." 

With such conflict of opinion may we not agree with Sebelien, 
who suggests that the general feeling of well-being, the influence 
of sunlight, the pleasant spring weather and an outdoor life have 
more to do with the change produced, whether the fat is increased 
or decreased percentagely, than does the change in feed itself. 

With the coming of spring, the cows that have long been con- 
fined to their quarters in the stable find life irksome; the rough- 
age at this time becomes dry and loses in aroma and palatability. 
Then, too, the animals are shedding their coats. These factors 
combine against normal milk production in the last days of con- 
finement, and make the contrast of pasture life with its succulent 
feed all the more marked. 

673. Watery feed does not necessarily make watery milk. — Ee- 
viewing the subject broadly, we may conclude that succulent feeds 
have no deleterious effect upon the composition of milk; on the 
other hand, in many cases they may have a beneficial influence. 
It is entirely possible that such highly-diluted feeds as distillery 
slops, beet chips and wet brewers' grains, when fed in abnormal 
quantities for long periods, may prove prejudicial, though we can 
point to no definite experiments showing such results. 

» Tidakr. f. n. Landbr., II, 208. * Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc, 1895. 



Influence of Feed on Milk. 441 

(c) Changing One or More Components of the Milk. 

674. Opinions and early experiments. — In the whole realm of 
dairying no subject arises so frequently for discussion as the in- 
fluence of feed on the amount of fat in milk. Though the Bab- 
cock test is fast clearing away uncertainties, many dairymen still 
hold that certain feeds or feed combinations cause the cow to pro- 
duce milk richer or poorer in fat than the normal. Scientists, 
too, have been divided on this question, some holding with the 
practical dairymen, so called, while others urge that the results 
of investigations do not warrant their position. 

In 1869 Kiihni wrote: ^'The system of feeding is one of sec- 
ondary importance for milk production; the yield of milk is 
primarily dependent on the development or productive capacity 
of the milk glands of each cow, and even with changes from 
light to heavy feed the supply does not increase in proportion to 
the nutrients supplied. The same holds true where the farmer 
aims to increase any single component of the milk, as fat, since 
it is not possible to attain a one-sided increase of this or any other 
component in the milk by changes in the system of feeding. No 
such changes can, at any rate, be reached as are of practical im- 
portance." 

The author of the above, however, in 1874-77 conducted trials ^ 
in which palm- nut meal in particular, and also malt sprouts, pea- 
nut meal and cotton-seed meal, when fed to dairy cows, appeared 
to have an influence on the quality of milk, the fat content being 
increased. Usually these experiments were made with single 
cows and the feeding periods were of short duration, thus giving 
the immediate influence of a change of feed undue prominence. 
In later experiments with palm-nut meal, where all the necessary 
precautions were taken, the later conclusions of KUhn were not 
substantiated. 

Numerous investigations, direct and indirect, on this point 
have been conducted at American Stations, a reference to which, 
even, would occupy too much space. The most marked example 
of seeming change in composition through feed influence was by 

1 Landw. Vers. Sta., 12, p. 441. 

2 Jour. f. Landw., 1874-77. 



4;42 Peeds and deeding. 

Patrick, at the Iowa Station/ where .58 per cent, more fat was 
found in the milk of cows getting sugar meal than was found in 
the milk of the same cows when fed corn and cob meal. Amer- 
ican findings do not generally show any marked permanent change 
in the fat content of milk brought about by feed; indeed, when 
Patrick 2 again fed sugar meal, only a slight difference was found 
in its favor, some cows giving adverse results. We may conclude 
in this case, then, that these results were accidental, or rather 
that they were due to other than the assigned cause. 

675. Danish experiments. — ^The experiments with cows by the 
Copenhagen Station ^ furnish reliable data on this important sub- 
ject, because of the large number of animals employed and the 
character of the feeds supplied. Friis, treating of this subject, 
writes: ''In the comparative feeding trials with milch cows now 
conducted for several years by this Station, in which 1,639 cows 
have been included (separated into 161 lots on ten estates in dif- 
ferent parts of our country), it has been repeatedly found that 
the changes made in the feed of the lots have practically had 
no influence on the chemical composition of the milk. In these 
experiments grain has been fed against roots, against oil cake, 
and against wheat bran or shorts; grain and oil cake have been 
fed against roots, or roots have been fed as additional food." 

676. Possible exceptions. — It is possible that a cow which has 
long been illy nurtured and is in i^oor condition will give milk 
abnormally low in fat, and that the milk will increase in richness 
of fat with increased feed supply and the approach of the body 
to normal conditions. When a cow is fed a starvation ration the 
milk may be richer or poorer in fat than the normal, the quantity 
decreasing raj)idly. There is little known that is definite or sat- 
isfactory on these points. 

(d) Changes in Character or Composition of One or More of the 
Components of Milk. 

677. Effect of feed on composition of butter-fat. — It is gener- 
ally agreed that feed affects in some way the character of the 
fat of milk, which is shown practically by the varying character 



1 Bui. 14. 2 Bui. 15, I<nva Sta. » Rept. 1S9-4. 



Injtuenee of Peed on Milk 44S 

of butter. A number of investigators have studied the vari- 
ations in hardness, melting point, volatile fatty acids, etc., of 
butter-fat, due, it is generally supposed, to the different feeding 
stuffs employed in nurturing the cow. While each investigator 
has arrived at certain conclusions seemingly warranted by the 
trials he has conducted, on classification these findings show little 
agreement, so that Frear, i studying all the available data, was 
forced to write: ''They do not, however, suffice either for the 
framing of a theory as to the relation of the several food constit- 
uents to the fats of the milk, or for the quantitative measure of 
the influence of a given food. ' ' 

As with scientists, so with practical feeders, — we can find them 
stating with much assurance that this or that particular feed has 
this or that influsnce on the character of the butter made while 
feeding it; when we classify these opinions, however, we find 
them discordant and standing in opposition on the same article. 

As to cotton-seed meal there is fairly uniform agreement that 
it makes a hard butter; while often deleterious, therefore, it may 
be useful in firming butter required for the summer trade. (For 
the influence of cotton-seed meal on butter see Article 217. ) The 
changes in the quality of butter due to length of time from calv- 
ing are generally gieater than those wrought by any special sj^s- 
tem of feeding. As originallj^ shown by Nilson, ^ fat from fresh 
cows contains a larger amount of volatile fatty acids than is found 
at any later stage of the lactation period; as a result, butter 
from such cows has a high flavor, comparatively speaking, while 
that from strippers is deficient in flavor and of tallowy consist- 
ence. 

(e) Feed Influences on Flavor and Odor of MilJc or Its Derivatives. 

678. Flavors of milk, butter, etc. — Besides the variations already 
referred to which are supposably measurable by the chemist, 
there are immeasurable ones which may exert a potent influence 
on the quality of milk and its products, these being perceived by 
the sense of taste or smell — usually by the former. Certain articles 
eaten by cows — leeks, onions, turni^JS, etc. — give flavors detected 

* Agrl. Science, 1893. ^ Kgl. Landtbruks Ak. Handl., 1885, 45. 



444 Feeds and Feeding. 

by the majority of persons using milk. Eye, when pastured, 
gives an unpleasant flavor to milk, not detected by all, but by 
many. Grass has a marked effect on the flavor of butter, de- 
tected by all in spring when the cows are first changed from dry 
feed to pasture. This flavor is soon unnoticed, but whether it 
really disappea.rs, or is unobserved because of familiarity brought 
about by daily use, is an open question. The intensity of flavors 
and odors in milk originating from certain feeds probably varies 
with different cows, the milk of some showing these faults in a 
more marked degree than others. Often odors and flavors in 
milk charged to the cow are due to contamination of the milk 
after it is drawn and while left in the stable or elsewhere. 

679. A review of the subject. — Eeviewing the matter, it seems 
from the data at hand that it is possible to vary the composition 
of cow's milk for short periods by marked changes in the character 
of the feed supplied, there being an increase of one or two-tenths 
of one per cent, of fat when feeds rich in protein are given, 
though sometimes the change is the other way. The extensive 
Danish investigations conclusively show that the dairy farmer 
cannot hope to measurably increase the percentage of fat in his 
milk by any practicable system of feeding. 

It is remarkable that dairymen have so generally held an er- 
roneous opinion regarding the ability of feed to permanently af- 
fect the quality of milk. They have doubtless been led into this 
error because with any marked improvement of the ration for the 
cow there has always come a larger flow of milk, and consequently 
a larger total amount of fat. It would appear that the variations 
in the fat percentage of milk are oftener brought about by nervous 
influences than through the character of the feed supplied. Even 
the variations found when first changing to new rations may be a 
nervous rather than a feed effect, thus explaining why the change 
is but temporary. 

When the function of milk is considered, the view here held as 
to its stability of composition seems rational. If the milk of the 
dam were subject to marked or violent fluctuations, varying in 
composition with every small change in quantity or quality of 
food-supply, the welfare of the young animal receiving it would 



Influence of Wide and Narrow Rations. 445 

be constantly threatened. Nature has wisely provided that this 
vital food shall remain quite constant in composition so far as 
nutritive influences are concerned, though the quantity must vary 
with the abundance or scantiness of the feed supplied. 

It is not apparent why nervous impulses should affect the com- 
position of milk so readily while feed does not. It appears that 
the milk glands are under nervous control, and whatever threatens 
the existence of the dam or her young, or mars her equanimity, 
is immediately reflected in the milk secretion. 

680. Conclusion. — The dairyman who wishes to improve the 
quality of his milk must look to breed rather than to the char- 
acter of the feed. Within the breed he must select those animals 
shown by the fat test to yield high percentages of the desired in- 
gredient. Securing suitable animals, he will reach the quantity 
of fat sought by supplying his cows with rations ample in quan- 
tity, rich in digestible components and altogether palatable and 
wholesome. 



n. Wide and Narrow Rations. 

681. Storrs Station studies. — The Storrs (Connecticut) Station 
is conducting an important investigation in relation to the cost of 
nutrients supplied dairy cows and the milk and butter returns. 
A representative of the Station is located with a chosen dairy- 
man for a period of twelve days, during which time he weighs 
the feed and milk of each cow of the herd, sending samples to the 
Station for analysis. From the results of the analyses and the re- 
ports of the representative, the Station authorities formulate a new 
ration, presumed by them to be superior to that being fed. After 
the new ration has been used for a time, the herd is again visited, 
the representative remaining twelve days, as before, to study the 
effects of the ration. In every instance narrower rations have 
been substituted for the original, showing that the Station finds the 
dairyman not feeding liberally enough of protein, according to its 
understanding of the needs of the cow. (147-8) Under this sys- 
tem nine herds have been studied by the Station authorities. The 
nutrients of the rations found on the first visit, and those used 



446 



Feeds and Feeding. 



later upon recommendation of the Station, are given in the fol- 
lowing table: 

Rations fed by Connecticut dairymen and those adopted by them on 
recommendation of the 8torrs Station. 





Av. 

wt. 
per 
cow. 


Ration fed. 




Digesti- 
ble pro- 
tein. 


Calor- 
ies. 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 


Av. of nine rations originally fed by Con- 
necticut farmers 


Lbs. 
750 

750 


Lbs. 
1.68 

2.17 


26,650 
25,900 


1:75 


Av. of nine rations adopted by farmers 
on recommendation of Storrs Station.. 


1 :5.6 



It will be seen that the change is mainly in supplying more 
protein in the ration, thus narrowing the nutritive ratio. The 
dairymen found by following the Station's advice that they were 
able to effect a saving in feed cost of about six cents per hundred 
pounds of milk and two cents for each pound of butter produced. 

682. Influence of feed prices on economy of rations. — The best 
ration for Connecticut dairymen, or the most scientifically com- 
pounded, may not be the most satisfactory for Western conditions, 
because of difference in price for leading feed-stuffs, for at the 
West the carbohydrates are lower priced relatively than in the 
East. To illustrate this point let us calculate the cost of milk 
and butter for feed consumed, based on the different conditions. 
In the following table is given the Connecticut prices reported by 
the Station and average Western prices for common feeding-stuffs: 

Prices for feeding stuffs used in the Connecticut feeding trials and 
those prevailiug in the dairy district of the West. 



Kind of feed. 


Con- 
necti- 
cut. 


West- 
ern. 


Kind of feed. 


Con- 
necti- 
cut. 


West- 
ern. 


Concentratcx. 


$13-19 
14-21 
16-20 
21-26 
22-30 
18-25 
14-19 
18 

14-20 
14 


$12 
12 
12 
2:^ 
20 
18 
14 
IS 
13 
12 


Roughage. 


$16 00-18 
12 00 
14 00 
12 00-14 

8 00 

2 50 
10 00 

8 00 

10 00 

12 00 

10 


SS 00 


Corn meal 




6 00 






8 00 


Cotton-seed meal 


Oat- hav 


8 00 


Linseed meal (O. P.) 




3 00 


Gluten meal 




2 00 


Gluten feed 


Corn foddtM- 


5 00 


Imperial feed (wheat)... 




4 00 






3 00 


Malt sprouts... 




8 00 




Potatoes, small, per bu.. 


10 



Influence of Wide and Narrow Rations. 



447 



With these prices for feed we have calculated the cost of pro- 
ducing 100 pounds of milk and one pound of butter with the 
nine herds of cows used in the Connecticut investigations, and 
find the result as follows: 

Cost of feed for producing 100 pounds of milk and one pound of 
butter under Cotmecticut and Western conditions. 





Wide ration. 


Narrow ration. 


Result of using 
narrow ration. 




100 lbs. 
milk. 


1 lb. 
butter. 


100 lbs. 
mill?. 


lib. 
butter. 


Milk. 


Butter. 


At Co n n e c t i c u t 
prices for feed 

At Western prices 
for feed 


Dollars. 

1.12 
.629 


Cents. 

.21 
.115 


Dollars. 

1.08 
.689 


Cents. 

19.0 
.12.3 


Cents. 

Saved 

6 

Lost 

6 


Cents, 

Saved 

2 

Lost 

.8 







It will be seen that the Connecticut farmer effects a saving of 
six cents on a hundred pounds of milk and two cents on a pound 
of butter by adopting the narrow ration recommended by the 
Station, Were the Western farmer to follow the Station's counsel, 
he would lose six cents on a hundred pounds of milk and eight- 
tenths of a cent on a pound of butter. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

PUBLIC TESTS OF PUREBRED DAIRY COWS — COST OF PRODUC- 
ING MILK AND FAT IN DAIRY HERDS AT VARIOUS EXPERI- 
MENT STATIONS. 

I. Test at the WorWs Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. 

683. Concerning the test. — The authorities in charge of the 
World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, in co-operation 
with representatives of the various dairy and cattle breeders' asso- 
ciations of America, planned a test of dairy breeds to occur dur- 
ing the six months of the Exposition. The original plan embraced 
herds of animals representing all the leading dairy breeds. Each 
herd was to be managed by the association entering it, account 
being taken of all feed consumed and products returned. The 
general supervision of the cows and the manufacture of the milk 
was in charge of a committee representing the Association of 
American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations and 
representatives of the breed associations participating in the test. 
Commodious stables were constructed, silos built and filled, and 
a large dairy building erected. The outcome was the entrance 
of three herds of twenty-five cows each in the contest^ the Jersey, 
Guernsey and Short-horn breeds being represented. The data 
of this contest are said to fill 900 pages of record books. * 

* Most unfortunately the official records of this test have never been 
published although certain summaries have been given to the public 
through various channels. The Association of Agricultural Colleges, in 
whose charge the records were left, has offered to deposit them with the 
Agricultural Department at Washington, where doubtless they will be 
available for reference in the future. For reports of the test, see numbera 
of the Breeder's Gazette, Chicago, 1890-1893, inclusive. The most complete 
sununary appears in Jersey Bulletin, Indianapolis, Dec. 20, 1893. An- 
other summary was published by James Cheesman, Southborough, Mass., 
printed originally in Journal of the British Dairy Farmers' Association, 
London, 1894- also in pamphlet form by the author. Another summary 
was published in pamphlet form by Valancey E. Fuller, Superintendent 
of the Jersey herd during the contest. The tables here presented are 
from the Jersey Bulletin and the Cheesman report. 



Public Tests of Fure-hred Dairy Cows. 



449 



Only the briefest summary of tlie more important results can 
be here presented, but these should prove useful to dairy students 
and others, the accuracy of the figures being unquestioned. 

684. Prices charged for feed. — The prices charged for feed con- 
sumed by the cows during the contest, fixed by the chief of the 
Agricultural Division of the Exposition, appear in the table 
below: 



Fnces charged per ton for feed consumed by cows — Columbian Dairy 

Contest. 



Timothy hay (mixed). 

Corn meal 

Cotton-seed meal 

Linseed meal 

Oats 

MiddUngs 

Bran 

Clover hay 

Silage 

Grano-gluten 

Cream-gluten 

Corn hearts 

Green clover 

Swale grass 

New hay 

Carrots 



Cheese 
test. 



$11 50 
22 00 
26 00 

22 00 

23 00 

13 00 

12 50 
11 00 

4 00 

14 75 
17 50 

13 50 



Ninety- 
day 
butter 

test. 



$11 50 
22 00 
26 00 

22 00 

23 00 
13 00 
12 50 



2 50 
14 75 
17 50 
13 50 
8 00 
1 00 
10 00 



Thirty- 
day 

butter 
test. 



p22 00 
26 00 

22 00 

23 00 
13 00 
12 50 



1 50 
14 75 



13 50 



10 00 
8 00 



Heifer 
butter 
test. 



$22 00 
26 00 

22 00 

23 00 
13 00 
12 50 



1 50 



13 50 



10 00 



685. Allowance for products. — A scale of prices for products 
was also fixed by the Division Chief, that for cheese ranging 
from eight to sixteen cents per pound, according to the score 
of these products as determined by expert judges. Whey was 
rated at eight cents per hundred pounds. In the butter contests 
all the fat produced by the cows was calculated as butter on the 
basis of eighty per cent, fat in the butter. The price allowed for 
the butter was forty-five cents or less per pound, depending upon 
its quality as scored by experts. Solids not fat in the skim milk 
and buttermilk were credited at two cents per pound. The live 
weight gained by the cows during the trial was rated to their 
credit at four and a half cents per pound. 
29 



450 



Feeds and Feeding. 



686. Description of the tests. — The first test was for cheese 
production, the trial beginning May 12 and continuing fifteen 
days, with twenty-five cows in each herd. 

The next trial was for the production of butter, with credits for 
butter, solids not fat, and gains in live weight. There were twenty- 
five cows in each herd, the trial beginning June 1 and continu- 
ing ninety days. 

The third trial, beginning August 30, lasted thirty days, there 
being fifteen cows in each herd. In this trial butter only was 
credited. 

The contest ended with a test of heifers, lasting twenty-one 
(lays, — fat, solids, and live weight being credited. 

Summaries of each of the trials are presented in the following 
tables: 

Cheese test May 12-26, 1893, fifteen days, twenty -five cows in each herd. 





Price 
per lb. 
cheese. 


Value of products. 


Total 

cost of 

feed. 


Total 


Breed. 


Cheese 


Whey. 


Live 

wt. 
gained 


Total. 


net 
gain. 


Jersey 


$ .1336 
.1195 
.1300 


S193 98 
1:35 22 
140 14 


$9 26 

7 73 

8 67 


814 72 
21 60 
31 91 


$217 96 
164 55 
180 72 


S98 14 
76 25 
99 36 


8119 82 


Guernsey 


88 30 


Short-horn 


81 36 







Feed Consumed. 



Breed. 




9 


"3 

a 



g 03 

6- 


d'3 

a 




pq 


o5 




|sa 


1 

•a 


6g 




Lbs. 

3,395 
5,000 
4,781 


Lbs. 

3,840 
l,7(i5 
5,978 


Lbs. 

370 
519 
371 


Lbs. 

2,391 
450 
519 


Lbs. 

600 
995 
997 


Lbs. 

2,204 
1,533 
1,194 


Lbs. 
4.50 
410 

1,645 


Lbs. 

1,106 
886 
682 


Lbs. 
1,667 


Lbs. 




677 




948 









Returns from Feed. 



Breed. 



Jersey 

Guernsey... 
Shortrhorn, 



Lbs. 

13,296.4 
10,9:>.8.6 
12,186.9 



Lbs. 

1,877.4 
1,503.8 
1,544.3 



Lbs. 

1,451.8 
1,130.6 
1,077.6 



Lbs. 

11,579 
9,067 
10,839 






i^ is "1-1 <o 



Lbs. 

327 
480 
709 



Lbs. 

9.16 
9.67 
11.31 



,9 Oft 



tS'^ 4) 
O U (U 

^ ftftC) 



9 .068 
.067 
.092 



8 .083 
.078 
.076 



Fublic Tests of Fure-bred Dairy Cows. 



461 




C3 M 



t- o 
0-3 



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to <:000 



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Obi 



o to a 



^ :oooi 
1-5 irt'e^T 



xfi CO ^ r- 
1-5 cq'cq'eo" 



0) t. (T 

£ ^ 5 



452 



Feeds and Feeding. 



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Pahlic Tests of Pure-hred Dairy Cows. 



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Feeds and Feeding. 



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Fublic Tests of Fure-ired Dairy Cows. 



455 



Best cow in each breed in the several tests, World's Columbian Ex- 
position, Chicago, 1893. 
Cheese test— Fifteen days. 





Products. 


Value of products. 


Value 
of food 
eaten. 




Breed. 


^ 
S 


M 

<o 

si 
O 




4) 
to 

o 


Whey. 


Gain 
or loss 
of live 
weight 


Total. 


gain. 


Jersey, Ida Marigold 
Guernsey, Sweet Ada 
Short-horn, Nora 


Lbs. 

674 

535 
663 


Lbs. 

70.9 
54.1 
60.7 


Lbs. 

586.6 
472.7 
590.0 


S9 47 

6 47 

7 88 


$ .47 
.38 
.47 


«1 26 

1 67 

2 62 


511 20 

8 52 
10 87 


$4 23 

3 25 
460 


$8 97 
5 27 
627 



Butter test— Ninety days. 



Breed. 



Jersey, Brown Bessie. 
Guernsey, Materna.... 
Bhort-horn, Nora 



d 




3 


Cost of 
food. 


Live 

wt. 


Credit. 


Debit. 


s 


b 


n 










Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




Lbs. 






3,634 
3,512 
3,680 


178 
153 
134 


217 
185 
166 


825 51 
22 69 
24 11 


+ 81 
- 13 
+115 


598 75 
81 11 
76 80 


«25 53 

23 28 

24 17 



Net 
profit. 



S73 22 
57 82 
52 63 



Butter t«st— Thirty days. 



Breed. 



Butter, 



Credit 
sales 



Debit 
food. 



Net 
profit. 



Jersey, Brown Bessie 

Guernsey, Purity 

Shortrhom, Kitty Clay 4th 



Lbs. 

72.24 
54.80 
62.24 



$33 27 
24 95 
28 53 



$8 57 
558 
8 49 



$24 m 

19 88 
^04 



Heifer test — Twenty-one days. 



Breed. 


Milk. 


Butter. 


Value 
of but- 
ter. 


Value 

of 
solids 
not fat. 


Value 
of live 
wt. 
gain- 
ed. 


Total 
credit. 


Cost of 
food. 


Profit. 


Jersey 


Lbs. 

563 
591 


Lbs. 

37.5 
26.1 


$15 00 
10 44 


$1 07 
1 04 


$0 86 
3 51 


$16 92 
14 99 


$5 70 
4 02 


$11 22 




10 97 







II. Experiment Station Breed Tests. 

687. Tests at the Stations. — Tests of pure-bred dairy cows 
covering considerable periods of time have been conducted at 
three Experiment Stations, viz. : New York (Geneva), ^ Maine, ^ 
and New Jersey. ^ 

1 Kept. 1894. 2 Rept. 1890. ^ i^ept. 1890. 



456 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The results of tlie tests with each breed are considered in the 
following table: 

Trials with pure-hred dairy cows at three American Stations. 



Breed. 



JS'ew York Sta- 
tion. 

Americau Hold 
erness 

Ayrshire 

Devon 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Jersey 

Short-horn 

Maine Station. 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Jersey 

JVew Jersey Sta 
tion. 

Ayrshire 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Jersey 

8hort-liorn 



No. of 
cows. 



No. of 
lacta- 
tion pe- 
riods. 



4 
11 



Average yield 
per year. 



Milk. 



Lbs. 



5,721 
6,824 
3,984 
5,385 
7,918 
5,04.5 
6,055 

8,369 
6,612 
5,460 



7,461 

7,446 

8,455 

7,695 

10,457 



Fat. 



Lbs. 



213.1 
244.8 
183.3 

2.S-5.5 
266.1 
282.1 
269.0 

285.0 
233.0 
297.0 



275.3 

379.0 
300.2 
376.3 
396.3 



Av, 

per 
cent, 
fat. 



3.73 
3.60 
4.60 
5.30 
3.36 
5.60 
4.44 

3.47 
3.67 
5.50 



3.69 
5.09 
3.55 

4.89 
3.79 



Cost of — 



100 lbs. 
milk. 



Cents. 



76.0 
74.0 
94.0 
86.0 
65.0 
90.0 
78.0 

85.5 

94.9 

113.0 



76.0 

78.1 
79.7 
87.5 
79.0 



1 lb. fat. 



Cents. 



20.1 
20.2 
20.5 
16.1 
19.1 
16.1 
17.2 

25.2 
26.8 
20.4 



20.6 
15.3 
22.4 
17.9 

20.8 



688. Combining the results. — To secure better averages the 
figures last presented are combined in the following table, the 
cows being grouped by breeds: 

Summary of trials with pure -bred dairy cows at three American Stations. 



Breed. 



American Hold- 
erness 

Ayi*shire , 

Devon , 

Guernsey 

Holstein - Fries 
ian 

Jersey 

Short-horn 



No. of 
cows. 


No. of 
lacta- 
tion pe- 
riods. 


Average yield 
per year. 


Av. 

per 
cent. 

fat. 


Cost 


100 lbs. 
milk. 


Milk. 


Fat. 






Lbs. 


Lbs. 




Cents. 


2 

10 

3 

8 


4 
20 

5 
10 


5,721 
6,909 
3,984 
6,210 


213.1 

248.5 
183.3 
322.9 


3.73 
3.. 60 
4.60 
5.20 


76.0 

78.5 
94.0 

82.8 


9 
9 
4 


10 

18 
5 


8,215 
5,579 
8,696 


282.0 
301.1 
345.4 


3.43 
5.40 
3.97 


74.7 
94.7 

78.7 



1 lb. fat. 
Cents. 

20.1 
21.5 
20.5 
15.8 

21.5 
17.4 
19.4 



Station Findings unth Dairy Herds. 457 

In the preceding table the results for forty-five pure-bred cows 
carried through seventy-two lactation periods are reported. The 
valuations of feed stuffs by the different Stations vary somewhat, 
so that the averages are not strictly correct in the c-ombinations as 
made; yet it is believed that these condensed figures are on the 
whole in the best form for comparative study. 

III. Station Findings with Dairy Herds. 

689. The Station herds reported. — The x>ractical dairyman is 
interested in learning the results of operations conducted with 
dairy herds for an entire year, knowing that such records, when 
correctly reported, are of special value. Fortunately we are able 
to present yearly tests at four widely-separated Stations to aid 
those interested in reaching conclusions as to the cost of feed re- 
quired in producing a given quantity of milk and fat. 

Wing, of the Cornell Station, ^ reports the returns from a herd 
of twenty cows, mostly Holstein and Jersey grades. Pure-bred 
and grades of the leading dairy breeds constituted the herd of 
twenty-three cows at the Minnesota Station, 2 reported by Haecker. 
Soule tells of the returns from a herd of twelve cows embracing 
Short-horns and Jerseys at the Missouri Station. ^ The fifteen 
cows in the Utah Station* herd, reported by Linfield, were com- 
mon animals selected in the vicinity of the Station by means of 
the Babcock test. Of course the cows were better than the 
average in the vicinity. 

690. Prices alJowed for feed. — The prices for feed as given 
below are those assumed by the Station authorities presenting 
the data of the herd trials. The student should compare these 
prices with those ruling about him for feeding stuffs of the same 
class. If the dairyman wishes to compare the results of these 
trials with what he has accomplished with his own herd he can 
do so without difiBculty by placing that value on each feeding 
stuff used which represents its selling price in his local market. 
Katurally the prices vary considerably, being highest in N'ew 
York and lowest at the West. 

1 Bui. 52. 2 Bui. 35. ^ Bui. 26. * Bui. 43. 



458 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Prices used in calculating cost of producing milk and fat in dairy 
lierds at four Stations. 
New York. Minnesota. 



Hay, per ton 

Silage, per ton 

Wheat bran, per ton 

Oats, per bushel 

Cottou-seed meal, per ton. 

Corn meal, per ton 

Corn stover, per ton 

Fresh grass, per ton 

Hoots, per ton 

Pasture, per week 



$9 00 Hay, timothy, per ton $5 60 

1 75 Hay, prairie, per ton 3 20 

18 00 Hay, millet, per ton 5 60 

35 Silage, per ton 2 00 

25 00 Hay, oat, per ton 4 80 

20 00 Corn meal, per ton 14 00 

3 00 Barley meal, per ton 14 00 

1 75 Linseed meal, per ton 26 00 

2 00 Oats,perton 18 00 

30 Bran, per ton 1100 

Mangels, squashes, per ton.. 2 00 

Pasture, per season 3 50 

Utah. 

Alfalfa hay, per ton $3 75 

Mixed hay, per ton 6 75 

Wheat, per ton 12 66 

Barley, per ton 15 00 

Bran, per ton 9 00 

Pasture, per month 1 00 

691. Cost of milk and fat. — From the data collected we are 
able to learii the cost of feed required by the dairy cow in pro- 
ducing one hundred pounds of milk and one pound of fat at four 
widely-separated American Experiment Stations, the data being 
summarized in the table below: 

Cost of feed required in the production of one hundred pounds of milk 
and one pound of fat, by months — Four Stations. 



Missouj'^i. 

Hay, perton $6 00 

Corn chop, per ton 16 00 

Oilcake, perton 20 00 

Cotton-seed meal, per ton... 18 00 

Bran, perton 12 00 

Pasture, per season 3 00 





New York. 


Minnesota. 


Missouri. 


Utah. 


Average. 




20 
1,123 lbs. 
286 lbs. 


2;^ 

976 lbs. 
301 lbs. 


12 
990 lbs. 
248 lbs. 


15 

970 lbs. 
222 lbs. 




Average weight of cows .... 








Month. 








5' 

0"" 


la 


G.C3 
0^ 


sa 










$ .64 
.68 
.71 
.71 
.58 
.28 
.38 
.65 
.51 
.41 
.65 
.63 


$ .17 
.18 
.18 
.18 
.145 
.075 
.095 
.1.55 
.125 
.105 
.175 
.155 


$ .65 
.67 
.67 
.71 
.59 
.32 
.37 
.51 
.51 
.60 
.68 
.65 


$ .149 
.151 
.165 
,162 
.132 
.076 
.078 
.114 

.lot; 

.140 
.159 
.164 


% .94 
1.01 
1.21 
1.01 
.43 

.24 
.23 
.14 
.21 
.42 
.65 
1.03 


8 .240 
.%V, 
.299 
.234 
.096 
.0.53 
.0.53 
.033 
.052 
.098 
.1.53 
.265 


$ ..56 
.62 
.59 
.49 
.48 
.15 
.19 
.21 
.26 
.38 
.59 
.63 


« .138 
,160 
.142 
,121 
.113 
.038 
.049 
.051 
.066 
,091 
,135 
.143 


« ,68 

,72 
.76 
,71 
.54 
.26 
.31 
.42 
,41 
.47 
,65 
.71 


$ ,168 






179 


March 


187 




171 


May 


V>^ 




064 


July 


(\r>, 


August 


098 


September 


094 


Oclober 


ll'l 


November 


1.57 




174 






Average 


$ .57 


8 .145 


$ .58 


$ .133 


$ .63 


$ .152 


$ .43 


S .104 


« .55 


$ .133 









Station Findings with Dairy Herds. 



459 



The New York and Minnesota herds evidently contained the 
most carefully selected cows, and this tended to reduce the cost of 
milk and fat production. We observe that milk and fat cost the 
most during the winter months, the high price continuing into 
March in Utah, and through April at the other Stations. In May 
there is a diminution in cost at all Stations except Utah. During 
June at three of the Stations the milk and fat reach their low- 
est cost for food consumed, the cows then being on pasture. In 
Missoui-i the lowest price was reached in August — quite contrary 
to dairy experience in most states. With the passing of summer 
comes increased cost, until by November winter prices have 
again been reached. It is evident from these figures that milk of 
the lowest cost is produced in summer on pasture. The average 
cost of 100 pounds of milk at the four Stations for the year is 55 
cents; the cost of one pound of fat is 13.3 cents. 

692. Feed consumed by the dairy cow, yearly. — The data pre- 
sented by three of the Stations reporting are in such form that we 
can determine the average amount of feed required for keeping a 
dairy cow one year, the cost for the same and the returns in milk 
and fat These are as follows: 

Average amount of feed consumed and returns for feed, per year, by 
dairy cows — Three Statuyns. 





Feed eaten per cow. 


Aver- 
age cost 

of feed 
per cow. 


Av. returns 


Station. 


Past- 
ure. 


Concen- 
trates. 


Roughage. 


per cow, per 
year. 




Bran, grain, 
oil meal, etc. 


Roots, sil- 
age, green 
fodder. 


Hay. 


Milk. 


Fat. 


Minnesota .. 
Missouri 


Days. 

131 
191 
123 


Lbs. 

3,435 
3,027 
1,534 


Lbs. 
5,306 


Lbs. 

2,029 
3,480 
4,301 


$37 82 
35 30 

22 28 


Lbs. 

6,408 
5,927 
5,655 


Lbs. 

301 

248 


Utah 


1,535 


230 







We learn that the number of days on pasture varied from 123 
in Utah to 191 in Missouri. The Minnesota cows consumed 
one and three -fourths tons of concentrates or grain feed each, over 
two and one-half tons of roots and about one ton of hay. At the 



460 



Feeds and Feeding. 



other Stations, with a smaller allowance of concentrates, there 
was an increase in hay consumption. The average cost of keep- 
ing a cow ranged from $22.28 in Utah to $37.82 in Minnesota. 
The butter returns varied from 230 to 301 pounds and the milk 
from 5,655 to 6,408 pounds per cow. 

693. Herd record for one year. — We turn with interest to a 
report of the Station herd at Cornell University, ^ where the cost 
of feed consumed and the returns from each cow in the herd, 
twenty in number, are reported separately. "When Prof. Eoberts 
took charge of the herd in 1875 the yield of milk was 3,000 pounds 
per cowj now descendants of these cows average more than 7,000 
pounds of milk each. The prices allowed for feeding stuffs con- 
sumed have already been stated. The returns from the twenty 
cows are given in the following table: 

Cost of feed, milk and fat as determined during a year'^s trial with a 
herd of twenty cows — Cornell Station. 



No. of cow. 


Age. 


Cost of 
feed con- 
sumed 
during 
the year. 


Milk pro- 
duced. 


Cost of 
100 lbs. 
of milk. 


Fat pro- 
duced. 


Cost of 
one lb. 




Yrs. Mos. 


of fat. 


No. 1 


7+ 
5 
3 
1 

7+ 
1 
6 
4 
3 
4 
1 
3 
10 
2 
3 
6 
7 
3 

7-- 
7-- 


4 
5 
9 

10 
4 

"s" 

9 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
4 


$44 24 
47 65 

42 00 
49 07 

38 74 
41 24 

52 06 

39 96 
36 24 

46 51 

43 80 

43 66 

44 34 
4.5 98 

47 44 
43 12 

47 87 

48 63 

53 38 

49 08 


Lbs. 

8,028.50 
9,739.75 
4,743.25 
6,008.50 
6,214.50 
2,829.75 

11,165.00 
5,670.50 
3,387.75 
6,323.50 
5,136.00 
5,785.75 
5,458.50 
7,757.25 
9,003.25 
9,776.50 

10,417.00 
7,955.00 
8,655.50 

10,754.00 


$0 55 
49 
89 
82 
62 

1 48 
47 
70 

1 07 
74 
85 
75 
81 
69 
53 
44 
46 
61 
62 
46 


Lbs. 

391.62 
309.19 
233.63 
219.34 
326.68 
159.02 
417.97 
285.10 
197.33 
224.71 
160.79 
294.30 
195.31 
260.34 
299.07 
330.59 
302.93 
282.35 
382.77 
439.37 


10 115 


No. 2 


155 


No. 3 


18 


No. 4 


22;3 


No. 5 


12 


No. 6 


26 


No. 7 


12.5 


No. 8 


14 


No. 9 


185 


No. 10 


21 


No. 11 


27 


No. 12 


15 


No. 13 


22.5 


No. 14 


175 


No. 15 


16 


No. 16 


13 


No. 17 


16 


No. 18 


17 


No. 19 


14 


No. 20 


11 






Total 




$905 01 
45 25 


144,809.75 
7,240.50 


"io"625" 


5,712.41 

285.62 




Average 




$0 158 









» Bui. 52. 



Station Findings with Dairy Herds. 



461 



The preceding table is especially valuable because it covers a 
year's findings with all the cows of the herd, none being omitted 
in order to raise the average. 

We observe a wide range in the cost of feed consumed by the 
several cows, a still wider one in the yield of milk, and a marked 
difference in the cost of producing milk and fat. It is apparent 
from this table that even in well -nurtured dairy herds, where all 
conditions are favorable, it is of the highest importance to study 
feed consumption and the returns of milk and fat of each cow that 
the poor ones may be eliminated and only the best reserved for 
future breeders and producers. 

694. Dry matter required. — Another lesson from the Cornell 
herd is here presented. The dry matter in the feed required for 
producing one hundred pounds of milk and one pound of butter- 
fat with each of the cows during seven months — November to 
April inclusive — is given in the following table: 

Dry matter required in food hy coivs for one hundred pounds of 
milk and one pound of fat — Cornell Station. 





Dry matter consumed. 


Live wt. 


Dry matter 
consumed 


No. of cow. 


For each 

100 lbs. 

milk. 


For each 
lb. fat. 


per 1,000 lbs. 
live wt. 
per day. 


No. 1 


Lbs. 

79 

87 

136 

148 

92 

249 

81 

106 

141 

123 

140 

137 

120 

101 

91 

94 

74 

102 

104 

83 


Lbs. 

17 
28 
27 
42 
17 
44 
22 
21 
2.5 
36 
47 
26 
33 
31 
28 
28 
25 
28 
23 
19 


Lbs. 

858 
1,326 

946 

972 
1,123 

815 
1,474 
1,071 

829 
1,270 
1,001 
1,030 
1,283 
1,007 
1,160 
1,305 
1,520 
1,183 
1,239 
1,040 


Lbs. 

28.8 


No. 2 


22.8 


No. 3 


25.8 


No. 4 


25.9 


No. 5 


22.9 


No. 6 


29.2 


No. 7 


21.3 


No. 8 


22.6 


No. 9 


30.8 


No. 10 


20.7 


No. 11 


25.1 


No. 12 


22.9 


No. 13 


23.4 


No. 14 


26.1 


No. 15 


25.4 


No. 16 


22 2 


No. 17 


21.6 


No. 18 


25.5 


No. 19 


24.7 


No. 20 


26.4 






Average 


104 


27 




24.7 









462 Feeds and Feeding. 

The average for the herd of 20 cows shows that 104 pounds of 
dry matter in the feed produced 100 pounds of milk, and 27 
pounds produced 1 pound of butter-fat; 24 pounds of dry matter 
were consumed daily per 1,000 pounds of live weight. Eleven 
cows whose average weight was 1,004 pounds consumed more 
than 24 pounds of dry matter per 1, 000 pounds live weight daily. 
Xine cows whose average weight was 1,267 pounds ate less than 
24 pounds of dry matter per 1,000 pounds live weight. This 
indicates that large cows may consume smaller quantities of feed 
in proportion to their weight than small cows. (740) 



CHAPTEE XXYIII. 

FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIHY COW. 
I. Care and Management. 

695. Dairying based on maternity of the cow. — Xatiire\s practice 
of accumulating fat beneath the skin and between the muscular 
fibers of the animal body is to store heat and energy-producing 
material against a time of need. The process at first goes on 
rapidly, but after a time the system becomes gorged, and a 
further storage of fat is accomplished only at a high cost for feed 
consumed. (565) How different with the dairy cow, which eats 
heartily the food given her, not for the purpose of storing fat to 
protect herself against a time of possible bodily want, but for the 
nurture of her young. Food given at night is digested and con- 
verted into milk ready for the calf in the morning, the assim- 
ilated products disappearing from day to day almost as soon as 
elaborated, making easy way for more of the same kind from the 
same source. Doubtless it is because the milk product is daily 
given up by the cow that she so greatly excels the steer in the 
economical production of human food; for the steer, gaining in 
weight and fat, must vitalize and carry about as a part of the 
body, day after day, all the added fiesh. (612) 

The appropriation by man of the milk designed by nature for 
the calf makes possible the great art of dairying. Taking ad- 
vantage of the all-powerful impulse of motherhood for the pres- 
ervation of the young of the species, man stimulates the dairy 
cow by abundant feed and favorable surroundings to produce 
much more milk than is really needed by the calf were it still 
the object of her care. In so doing he has made the dairy cow 
more or less an artificial creature. 

The basis, then, of our dairy system is the maternity of the 
cow, and successful dairying depends upon rationally recognizing 



4G4 Feeds and Feeding. 

this fact. To W. D. Hoard, of Wisconsin, belongs the credit of 
bringing this subject to the attention of dairymen, i No one can 
fairly consider the dairy problem from this standpoint without 
regarding the cow in a new light and thereby becoming a better 
dairyman. 

696. Caring for the cow. — While our purpose is to cover the 
question of feeding, that subject cannot be wisely considered 
unless certain matters concerning the handling of the cow be first 
discussed. Though it cannot be affirmed that the digestion of 
food by the cow is affected by the character of her surroundings, 
it is certain that the yield of milk and its character are directly 
influenced thereby, so that the results to the dairyman are the 
same. Good returns from a given sui)ply of feed, no matter how 
abundant and satisfactory, cannot be looked for, unless the cow 
also has comfortable quarters and is intelligently handled. 

697. Necessity for shelter. — In another article (561) it is shown 
that the steer, gorged with food, and each day adding to the layer 
of heat-holding fat just beneath the skin, can withstand consid- 
erable cold, often showing preference for the open shed to the 
close stable. The condition of the dairy cow is in strong opposi- 
tion to this, her system being relaxed by the annual drain of 
maternity and the semi-daily heavy loss of nutrients drawn from 
her in the abundant milk flow. The observant stockman will at 
once detect the fundamental difference in the condition of the 
dairy cow and the fattening ox in regard to ability to withstand 
exposure to the weather. To be profitably managed and yield 
wholesome milk a cow must be comfortably housed in a well- 
ventilated stable in winter, the temperature of which should not 
fall below forty degrees as the minimum, or rise above sixty de- 
grees as the maximum. In such a stable, provided with abun-* 
dance of sunlight, she is in condition, so far as environment is 
concerned, to yield the highest returns for the feed given. (630) 

698. Exercise. — With the fattening animal soon to be slaugh- 
tered, confinement more or less close is advisable, since it pre- 
vents waste of tissue and conserves the feed. The end in view 
with the dairy cow is radically different, for she must give milk 



1 Bui. No. 1, Wisconsin Farmers' Institute, and elsewhere. 



Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 465 

almost daily during the whole period of her usefulness, and the 
milk so yielded must be wholesome in character, fit in all partic- 
ulars for the most delicate. It is certainly reasonable to hold 
that the cow cannot maintain the high standard of bodily health 
and vigor essential to the production of healthful milk when she 
is closely confined in the stable for long periods without oppor- 
tunity for outdoor air and exercise. She should be allowed 
several hours' exercise daily out of doors, or in quarters other 
than where she passes most of her time, the change affording 
opportunity to breath the pure air and drink in the sunshine, as 
well as to exercise the muscles which have not been called into 
action while in confinement, and resting those taxed by occupying 
a forced position in the narrow stall or stanchion. 

699. Professor Roberts' system. — At the North, where the 
winters are severe, it is difficult to give cattle the requisite exer- 
cise without forcing them to undergo exposure during inclement 
weather. At the Cornell Station, ^ Professor Eoberts has for years 
followed a plan of seemingly great value in its teachings to the 
dairymen of the North. Here the cows stand in stanchions while 
feeding and being milked, but are afterward turned into a 
covered enclosure, where they are free to stand or lie at will; 
thus they have a feed room and an exercise room each specially 
adapted to its purpose. The accumulations from the horse stable 
are spread over the floor of the covered yard, and this in turn is 
covered liberally with straw, on which land plaster is sprinkled 
to prevent odors arising. This perfect system of saving manure 
should of itself, in a few years, pay for the cost of the additional 
space required. By this plan the stable proper can be reduced 
to the smallest size compatible with holding the animals while 
being milked and fed. It can be kept scrupulously clean and prop- 
erly aired, since the cows are out of it several hours daily. The 
animals come to their provender at meal time with the best of ap- 
petites, and return to their larger quarters to ruminate in comfort. 

700. Regularity and kindness. — To skilful feeding the successful 
dairyman will add regularity and kindness in the management of 



Bui. 13; The Fertility of the Land, p. 201. 
30 



466 Feeds and Feeding. 

his herd. The true dairy cow is easily affected by unfavorable 
conditions. 

Babcock of the Wisconsin Station, * after careful studies with 
cows in many ways, writes: '' The elaboration of milk does not 
proceed at a uniform rate from milking to milking, but is most 
active at the time of milking, and is dependent not only upon the 
stimulus which the milk glands derive from the manipulation of 
the teats and udder, but upon the nervous condition of the animal 
at the time of milking. 

"In consequence of this, slight changes in the conditions under 
which the milking is done may have a decided influence upon 
both the yield and quality of milk. As a general rule the quality 
of milk, measured by the per cent, of fat which it contains, is 
more sensitive to changes of this kind than is the yield of milk. 
Among the changes which appear to have most influence in this 
respect, the following are of especial importance, viz. : Change in 
the interval between milkings and in the rate of milking; change 
of milkers and manner of milking, especially if the manipula- 
tion of the teats and udder be different; change of environment 
and any circumstance which excites or even slightly disturbs the 
animal at the time — excitement between milkings, if the cow has 
become quiet before milking, appears to have comparatively little 
influence. As would be expected there is a great difference in 
cows in this respect, some being very sensitive, while others are 
scarcely affected at all. In our experiments cows that have been 
giving milk for a long time have been less sensitive in this respect 
than fresh cows that were giving a large quantity of milk, but 
this may have been due to individual characteristics of the 
animals tested and not to the advanced period of lactation. I 
would recommend, therefore, in order to obtain the best results 
from any cow, that first of all she be treated kindly, all sources of 
excitement being avoided so far as possible. She should also be 
fed and milked at regular intervals by the same person, and all 
conditions should be maintained as nearly uniform as possible at 
all times. It is my opinion that kind treatment and pleasant 
surroundings will have a greater influence upon the quality of 

1 Rept. 1889. 



Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 467 

milk than the kind of food, provided the ration given contains 
sufficient nutriment for the maintenance of the animal." 

701. Feed and care of the bulf . — The ration for the bull calf 
should be rich in muscle- and bone-making material and ample in 
amount. As much growth as possible should be secured from 
pasture, because flesh from this source is the best that can be 
made, and also because of the vigor and tone this form of feed 
insures. In order to retain the young bull in pasture, a fence 
may be constructed with strong posts eight feet apart set deep in 
the ground; to these six or more strands of doubled barbed-wire 
are fastened. This makes an enclosure that will easily hold the 
young fellow, and here in the air and sunshine, with grass under 
foot, he will build a framework and establish a constitution which 
will not leave him old at four or five years, as we have come to 
think bulls to be. In winter, if possible, allow the bull exer- 
cise in an open lot with shed on one side to protect from the storm. 
The feed supply should consist of ample roughage, such as clover 
hay, corn stover and oat straw, with shorts, bran and oats for 
concentrates, these, however, being not too abundant. 

If the mature bull must be confined to the shed or housed in sum- 
mer there should be a liberal allowance of green feed, which will 
alleviate in some measure the hardship of continued confinement. 
A reform is needed in our present methods of confining bulls, — 
leaving them more in the pasture than at present. To do this 
the enclosure must be made secure with plank fences, supple- 
mented by wires for older animals, to insure safety, for there m 
too great risk of life in allowing these creatures to run at large 
with the herd in pasture. 

702. Fall and spring cows. — On the plains of the West, wliere 
we find the cow under natural conditions, calves must be dropp-d 
in the spring in order to become strong enough to withstand the 
rigor of the following winter. In dairy districts the cow is under 
artificial conditions, and nature need not be followed in all par- 
ticulars. Cows fresh in the spring yield most of their milk dur- 
ing periods of low prices for dairy products, and on returning to 
winter quarters the milk flow is not stimulated by the feed and 
conditions there prevailing. The cow that is fresh in the fiill 



468 Feeds and Feeding. 

gives a liberal supply of milk during winter, and when spring 
comes will flush again under the stimulus of fi'esh pastures. Fall - 
fresh cows will probably yield from ten to fifteen per cent, moi'e 
milk in the twelve- month than those calving in the spring. 

703. Care before and after calving. — There is a strong natural 
tendency with most good cows to become fat when not yielding 
milk. The pregnant dry cow should receive such feed supply as 
will allow her to attain, without difficulty, a good body condition. 
Grass is the best feed for this purpose, and if the dry cow can 
flesh up on grass alone it should be done. Dairy cows are so 
heavily fed with grain while giving milk that this opportunity 
for change of feed and for recuperation should be utilized by the 
dairyman. While there is a diversity of opinion among dairy- 
men as to the ideal condition of the cow at calving time, it is rea- 
sonable to hold that she should be in good flesh, though not 
"butcher fat." Before calving the feed should be cooling in 
character. Silage, roots, clover, hay, and fodder corn without 
ears, are all desirable for roughage. Bran, middlings, oats, 
and a little oil meal should prove satisfactory for concentrates. 
Immediately before calving let the supply of feed be relatively 
small. After calving, tepid water only should be given, as cold 
water may bring on a threatening ailment. If nourishment is 
needed, a little oat meal or ground oats in the water given will 
prove helpful. Let the feed supplied after calving be light for a 
few days and always under, rather than equal to, the desire of the 
cow. The use of a clinical thermometer in ascertaining the tem- 
perature of the cow from time to time for a few days before and 
after calving, or until all danger is past, is a most helpful means 
of determining the general condition of the animal and an aid in 
forestalling serious trouble. 

704. Frequency of feeding. — The frequency with which feed 
should be supplied cows has not been settled, and perhaps never 
will be until the members of the human family agree on the num- 
ber of meals a day and the character of each best suited to their 
own needs. From the large size of the paunch and the apparent 
necessity for rumination, it does not seem essential to supply feed 
many times a day. The common practice of feeding twice a day, 



Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 469 

once in the morning and once late in the afternoon, with an arm- 
ful of roughage to pick over at midday, appears a reasonable one, 
and conforms well with the labor requirements of the stable- 
There are dairymen who are never through feeding. They give 
first a little of this, then a little of that, keeping themselves busy 
in the stable most of the day in caring for their cows. The cows 
of such persons usually yield good returns, and their owners 
ascribe success to their particular system of feeding, when in- 
stead it is the general good care and not the particular system 
that should be credited. As with mankind, habit rules in these 
matters; and any system which is reasonable, having once been 
established, should not be set aside unless the feeder is sure of 
advantage from the change, which should be gradual, if possible. 

705. Order of feeding concentrates, roughage and water. — The 
digestive tract of the cow is provided with a large storage room 
for the reception of feed. (28, 34) In the paunch the various 
articles swallowed are rapidly and thoroughly commingled by the 
churning action of that organ. Hay and grain are soon thoroughly 
intermixed, and gradually soften in the warm liquid there so 
abundant. This being true, the order of supplying the several 
constituents of the ration is not of importance from a physiological 
standpoint. The cow seems best satisfied when receiving the 
concentrates or more appetizing portion of the ration first, and 
after this has been disposed of she begins in contentment to chew 
the hay, silage or other roughage placed before her. As barn 
operations are usually conducted, watering follows dry feed. 

706. Preparation of feed. — As the dairy cow when giving a 
large flow of milk is accomplishing much work, it is best to pre- 
pare the feed for rapid mastication when i^ossible without too 
great cost. Grain should generally be ground and roots sliced. 
Where labor is high priced, as at the "West, it is preferable in 
many cases to feed the cow in the most simple manner, even 
though as large returns do not follow. 

707. Dry feed. — Cows take kindly to dry feed, and as a rule 
prefer it to that in a sloppy condition. Because of the thorough 
admixture of the contents of the rumen, where there is abun- 
dance of moisture, there seems no occasion for converting meal 



470 Feeds and Feeding. 

into slop before feeding. By supplying the feed dry the mangers 
can be kept more wholesome with less labor in administering it. 

708. Liberal feeding. — The dairyman should never forget that 
about sixty per cent, of all the cow can eat is required to sustain 
her body, and only after this amount is provided can there be 
any returns to him. (134) Having incurred the expense neces- 
sary to operate a dairy, in the purchase of lands, buildings and 
cows, he is certainly shortsighted who will withhold any part of 
the forty per cent, of provender which will produce returns for 
himself. When the dairyman has reached the point of liberal 
feeding, he should begin to study the individual needs of the 
members. Since some cows can profitably utilize more feed than 
others the distribution of concentrates should proceed with dis- 
crimination, some animals being fed more and others less than 
the average of the herd. 

709. Confinement during heated periods. — Whether or not the 
dairyman practice soiling, there are periods in summer when 
cows should be in the stable during the day and turned to past- 
ure at night. During heated periods, when flies are troublesome, 
cows fall off greatly in their milk, this shrinkage measuring in 
some degree their suffering. At such times it is best to place 
them in darkened stables and supply green forage supplemented 
with meal. For exercise turn them out at night in yard or 
pasture. Knowing how difficult it is to bring cows back to their 
normal flow after these periods of shrinkage, the wise dairyman 
will not be unwilling to provide for their comfort at such times. 

710. Water. — That the cow requires a liberal supply of water 
goes without saying; for not only must the wants of the body be 
met, but a considerable quantity is drained off with the milk 
twice daily. (73) Being creatures of habit, cows can subsist 
when supplied water once each day, but an opportunity to reach 
the trough morning and evening is preferable. It is becoming 
quite common to supply water to cows individually in small 
troughs or vessels placed in front of them in the stable. If this 
supply can be kept wholesome the practice is satisfactory; but 
close inspection will show that in many cases, perhaps a majority, 
these individual watering devices are traps for filth and foul-smell- 



Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 471 

ing water. The dairyman should convince himself, by using his 
nose as well as his eyes, that the water in these devices is pure 
and wholesome. 

Whatever method of watering is employed, let uniformity pre- 
vail, the cows having opportunity to secure all they wish without 
fear of one another or of being forced to undergo hardship in 
securing it. Often the dairyman boasts of a spring or creek at 
which his cows may help themselves. These sources of supply 
are sometimes a long distance from the stable, and the animals 
are daily forced to make journeys to them, often in inclement 
weather, thereby experiencing discomfort and actual hardship. 
A good well with wind-mill will prove superior to springs and 
brooks in most cases, because with these water can be delivered 
when and where it is needed. (628) 

711. Salt. — Though little is known from investigation on this 
subject, it is evident from the extreme fondness of dairy cows for 
salt that this article should be regularly and abundantly supplied 
them. The necessity for salt increases with the amount of con- 
centrates given. From three-fourths to one ounce of salt daily is 
a reasonable allowance. It should be supplied daily rather than 
at irregular or infrequent periods in larger quantities. The prac- 
tice of placing large lumps of rock salt where they are accessible 
to the herd is satisfactory, provided the salt is kept under cover 
in a clean box. (72, 629) 

II. Feed for the Dairy Cow. 

712. Necessity for concentrated feed. — The dairy cow when 
yielding a liberal supply of milk should be regarded as an animal 
at hard labor. We have seen that the work-horse must have 
more grain and less roughage as his labor increases, and the same 
is true with the cow. (Chapter XVII, Part 11.) A portion of 
the provender must therefore take the form of grain or concen- 
trates. Moreover, if she is yielding a large amount of milk, i. e., 
working hard, it is best to aid her by reducing the grain to fine- 
ness by grinding. The dry cow is doing little work and can sub- 
sist on less feed, and this may be coarser in character. 

713. The relation of concentrates to roughage. — The relation 
of concentrates to roughage should always be borne in mind. 



472 Feeds and Feeding. 

The rule sTiould be to feed nearly as mucli roiigliage as tlie cow 
will consume without overtaxing her; then supply sufficient con- 
centrates to bring the digestible matter up to the required stand- 
ard. About four-tenths of the digestible nutrients should be 
given in the form of concentrates and six-tenths in the roughage. 
It vnW not do to feed all grain in expectation of better returns. 
A satisfactory ration must possess a certain bulk or volume in 
order to properly distend the abdomen. Without this the pro- 
ceases of digestion cannot proceed normally. This should never 
be forgotten, even when forcing cows in dairy contests. (Chapter 
YII.) 

714. Concerning the various feed stuffs. — In general, the vari- 
ous feeding stuffs used by dairymen have been fully considered 
in earlier chapters, so that only some of the more common ones 
need be here taken up, and these only in a brief way. 

715. Corn. — To this grain is due in no small measure the 
pre-eminence of the great dairy district of the West, in which 
Indian corn flourishes. No article is more palatable to the cow 
than corn in almost any form, and her fondness for it has often 
led to its abuse. Milk production calls for a large amount ot 
protein in the ration, and this protein constituent is not abundant 
in corn; for this reason corn should not form more than one-half 
or three-fifths of the concentrates. 

Where labor is high priced and corn clieap, it will be found 
economical to feed corn without husking. The simplest way is to 
use shock corn, throwing the long stalks with the ears into the 
feed mangers. The cows at first search for the ears, and having 
consumed these strip off the leaves, even eating the finer portions 
of the stalks. By supplying corn on the stalk for the evening feed, 
so as to allow the cows a long period for working them over, all 
will be consumed before morning except some of the coarser por- 
tions of the stalks, thus reducing the labor of removing the waste. 
Dairymen, however, will generally prefer to run their shock corn 
throiigh the feed- cutter or shredder, which leaves the material in 
a form relished by the cow and easily handled. The broken ears 
of corn are then easily masticated, the cobs also being consumed. 

With unhusked corn care must be taken to supply only the 
requisite amount of grain, which can be determined by selecting 



Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 473 

an average shock, husking out the ears and ascertaining how 
much shelled corn it carries. In feeding corn in this manner 
some of the grain will pass into the droppings undigested, but 
this need not be wasted if lusty shotes are given the opportunity 
of searching it out. (538, 634) 

716. Corn meal. — When exposed to the air corn becomes dry 
and should then be ground before feeding. Corn meal is a heavy, 
rich feed and should always be lightened or extended by the use 
of bran, shorts, oil meal, or some other feed of light character. 
Corn and cob meal will be found satisfactory for dairy feeding, 
and is recommended whenever it is possible to secure it at not too 
great expense for grinding. 

717. By-products of corn. — Gluten meal, cream-gluten, grano- 
gluten, corn germ and other by-products of corn are all excellent 
articles for feeding the cow, and their use is strongly commended. 
Eastern dairymen have learned to appreciate these articles and 
use them extensively, while Western dairymen, often living at 
no great distance from the factories where they are produced, 
know little or nothing concerning them. (161-4, 635-7) 

718. Oats. — It is not difficult to believe that oats, the most val- 
uable grain for the horse, are also a prime feed for the dairy cow. 
The husk of the oat, though carrying little nutriment, renders this 
grain a feed of light character in the stomach and easy of diges- 
tion. With the data given us by Woll, (642) the dairy farmer 
is in position to easily determine whether he can afford to feed 
the oats he may grow, or exchange them for bran or other com- 
mon feeds. 

The by-products of oat-meal factories are valuable just in the 
proportion in which the kernels of the oat grain appear in them. 
Often there are sufficient fragments of kernels in these articles to 
warrant the payment of a fair price for them; but when the hulls 
only are offered the dairyman would better let them alone, for 
they are no better than the roughage in his mows and stacks. 

719. Wheat bran and middlings. — ^ Next to corn, wheat bran is 
the great cow feed of this country. Eich in ash and protein, 
carrying a fair amount of starchy matter, its light, chaffy char- 
acter renders it the natural complement of heavy corn meal. 



474 Feeds and Feeding. 

Though its nutritive constituents approximate those of cotton- 
seed meal, it mixes well with that feed, causing it to lie more 
lightly in the stomach. 

The large amount of mineral matter in bran is another factor 
of much importance in milk production. In milk there is much' 
mineral matter, placed there for the framework of the calf, and 
bran supplies this more abundantly than most feeding stuffs. 

Middlings, like bran, are extensively fed to dairy cows. Being 
themselves heavy in character, they do not mix well with heavy 
feeds like cotton-seed meal and corn meal. Dairymen will find 
middlings much relished by cows and yielding satisfactory re- 
turns. Bran and middlings are conceded by all who have fed 
them to favorably affect the flow of milk. (174—5) 

Cows may be fed as much as six to eight pounds of bran daily 
and from four to six pounds of middlings. 

720. Rye. — This grain is fed in small quantities to milch cows 
in Denmark. It is said to have a somewhat deleterious influence 
on the quality of butter. The same statement applies to lye bran. 
Not over three pounds of ground rye or rye bran should be fed in 
one day to milch cows. 

721. Barley. — The common grain for milch cows in Denmark 
is barley and oats, generally sown and harvested together, the 
proportion of barley and oats in the mixture being 2:3, or 1:2. 
Barley alone is not fed extensively to cows, wheat bran being 
preferred on the score of cheapness and influence on the milk 
secretion. Barley will prove beneficial to cows fed heavily with 
roots, since it counteracts their laxative influence. From three 
to five pounds of ground barley will suffice in the ration of the 
cow, bran proving an excellent complementary feed. (178) 

722. Brewers' grains. — Fresh brewers' grains constitute one of 
the best of feeds for the dairy cow. She is fond of them, and they 
influence most favorably the flow of milk. Fed while fresh, in 
reasonable quantity, supplemented by bright hay or corn fodder 
for dry feed, the grains being supplied in tight feed-boxes which 
can be kept clean, and with all other conditions favorable to the 
healthfulness of the cow, no valid objection can be raised against 
this form of feed. From twenty to thirty pounds of wet grains 



Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 475 

should constitute a day's allowance. Because the grains are low 
priced is no reason for over -feeding with them. Corn meal is an 
excellent complementary feed, two or three pounds being used 
daily with the grains. Because of their sloppy character, some 
dry feed should always be supplied with the grains unless the 
cows are at pasture in summer. (182) 

Dried brewers' grains can be economically transported and form 
an excellent feed for cows. Their purpose in the ration will be 
largely to supply protein, which they carry in abundance. It 
seems strange that American dried brewers' grains should find 
their market largely in distant Germany. Four or five pounds of 
dried grains will furnish a considerable portion of the protein re- 
quired in the ration and prove very acceptable to the cow. (183) 

723. Cotton seed and its by-products. — Vanderford, of the Ten- 
nessee Station, ^ concludes as follows, after a study of cotton seed 
and its by-products for cows: "We can recommend as giving 
satisfactory results the use of as much as 15 pounds of cotton-seed 
hulls in the dairy ration per 1,000 pounds live weight. A larger 
proportion has, with our cows, caused a weakening of the digest- 
ive powers, evidenced in some cases by a tendency to diarrhoea, 
in others to constipation." 

Of cotton-seed meal he writes: ""We do not think it advisable 
to feed more than five pounds of cotton-seed meal daily to milch 
cows. For butter-making it is not advisable to exceed three 
pounds daily. Many years of close observation elsewhere, as 
well as the results of recent experiments, induce the writer to be- 
lieve that it is not safe to feed cotton-seed meal as the sole addi- 
tion to the daily allowance of coarse fodders, particularly during 
the three months preceding and month after calving." 

Connell and Clayton, ^ experimenting with cotton-seed meal and 
cotton seed, found boiled cotton seed the cheapest available feed. 
Lloyd, 3 testing cotton seed and cotton-seed meal, reached the fol- 
lowing results, when cotton seed was valued at six dollars per ton 
and cotton -seed meal at twenty dollars per ton: " By comparing 
the averages of the lots fed on steamed seed, raw seed, and on 

> Bui. April, 1893. 

2 Bui. 33, Texas Expt. Sta. 

3 Bui. 21, Miss. Expt. Sta. 



476 Feeds and Feeding. 

cotton-seed meal (the rations of hay being the same in each 
case), it was found that, with steamed seed, milk was produced at 
a cost of 6.5 cents per gallon and butter at 14.3 cents per pound; 
with raw seed, milk was produced at 7.25 cents per gallon and 
butter at 15.58 cents per pound; and from cotton-seed meal, milk 
was produced at a cost of 11.13 cents per gallon and butter at 
25.02 cents per pound." 

While the seed may be fed raw, it is stated that cooking pre- 
vents it from imparting an undesirable flavor to butter. (210-12, 
216-17, 644) 

724. Clover hay. — No dry forage can prove superior to good 
clover hay for the cow, because of its palatability and its rela- 
tively high protein content. This hay should generally be fed 
long, since it is fresher and shows less dust when so handled than 
after passing tlirough the feed- cutter. From ten to twelve pounds 
is a sufiicient allowance for a day's feed. Corn fodder, corn 
stover or corn silage are complementary forms of roughage. (291) 

725. Timothy hay. — Generally dairymen cannot afford to feed 
timothy hay because of the high price it commands compared 
with its very moderate value for roughage when fed to the cow, 
and also because of the small yield returned per acre. Where 
prices are high, if there is timothy hay on hand, let it be sold and 
fodder corn used in its place. Often a ton of timothy hay can be 
sold for a sum that will purchase a ton of bran, in which case the 
bran should be used with fodder corn or other roughage. 

726. Millet hay. — Hay from millet or Hungarian grass, when 
well preserved, is useful for feeding if supplied once a day for 
roughage. Since millet is not rich in protein, not over six or eight 
pounds should be fed daily. (482) Clover hay is a complement- 
ary roughage feed because rich in protein. 

727. Fodder corn. — In this country successful dairying rests 
largely upon the judicious use of the corn plant for forage. The 
best forage is secured where the seed grains of corn are planted 
just thick enough to grow stalks which will carry a generous sup- 
ply of small ears or nubbins. Harvested at the right time, a 
large yield of forage is secured, which is so palatable that, pre- 
served either as silage or cured in the shock, practically all of the 



Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 477 

material is available as feed for the cow if rightly handled. Next 
to the direct care of the herd, the greatest study of the dairyman 
should be in learning to economically grow, harvest and admin- 
ister the corn plant. 

The cow may receive from ten to fifteen pounds of fodder corn 
daily with advantage. If this has been grown with a ^'nubbin " 
or small ear on most of the stalks, a fair allowance of the rough- 
age will furnish as much grain as should be fed. (250) 

728. Corn stover. — Where corn is grown for the grain, the 
straw or stover which remains after husking the ears, though of 
less value than fodder corn, may still serve an important place 
in the feed stable. Cows are fond of the finer parts of the corn 
stalk, and if the stover is run through a feed-cutter and not too 
liberally supplied, but a small part of the stalks will be wasted. 
Where the stalks are coarse and inert, as they are in the southern 
part of the corn belt and further south, this statement does not 
apply, for there corn stalks are not much relished by cows, though 
in silage form they are readily eaten. (251) 

729. Roots. — In Europe dairymen make large use of roots. 
In this country, where Indian corn flourishes, silage from corn 
will be found more economical considering cost of production, 
and is equally satisfactory with the root crop for feeding cows. 
Where the dairyman does not have silage it will be well to feed 
some roots. Mangels are the best for cows and should be pulped 
or sliced. Canadian dairymen often pulp the roots and mix this 
with chaffed hay, allowing the mass to stand a day before feed- 
ing. From twenty to forty pounds of mangels is a day's allow- 
ance. Sugar beets also serve for feeding cows. Being much 
richer than mangels, a smaller quantity should be fed. (325) 

730. Silage. — Silage, principally from the corn plant, is now a 
factor of first importance on thousands of American dairy farms. 
That silage is well liked by the cow, that she thrives on it and 
yields milk liberally, that properly fed it does not impair her 
health, — all these points have been settled in favor of the 
silo and its product. Since corn silage is rich in carbohydrates 
and low in protein, clover hay is the common complementary 
roughage. 



478 Feeds and Feeding. 

The character of silage is such that, even though cows seem- 
ingly thrive on it when fed alone, some dry roughage should be 
supplied with it. In northern latitudes the cow should not be 
wholly maintained in winter on silage. Good corn silage always 
contains a liberal supply of ears, and the amount to be fed de- 
I)ends directly upon the proportion of ears to forage. From thirty 
to fifty pounds is the usual daily allowance for a cow. (See Chap- 
ter XV.) 

731. Rations for dairy cows. — The young dairyman scans re- 
ports to ascertain what others are feeding their cows; the dairy- 
man with years of experience is not averse to knowing of the 
practices of others, though he may be slow in changing to that 
which is new. (136) 

In 1894, Woll, of the Wisconsin Station, ^ by correspondence 
secured data concerning the rations fed by more than a hundred 
dairymen scattered over the United States. (146) As most of 
them were noted in their specialty, we can place no better guide 
before the reader than a group of rations from this source: 

Colorado. — 20 lbs. alfalfa hay, 5 lbs. oat straw, 2 J lbs. wheat bran, 2 J lbs. 
shorts, 5 lbs. oats, IJ lbs. cotton-seed meal. 

Connecticut. — 35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 3 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. corn and 
cob meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. Chicago gluten meal. 

Ulinois. — 10 lbs. timothy hay, 10 lbs. clover hay, 8 lbs. corn, 1| lbs. oats. 

Indiana. — 30 lbs. com silage, 5 lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. corn fodder, 1 lb. 
oat straw, 1 lb. wheat straw, 5 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. oil meal, 2 lbs. cot- 
ton-seed meal. 

Iowa.— 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. hay, 5 lbs. com fodder, 1 lb. oat straw, 

1 lb. barley straw, 5 lbs. ear corn, 2J lbs. ground oats and barley. 

Kentucky. — 32.5 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. com fodder, 5 
lbs. corn meal, 4 lbs. ship-stuff, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

Massachusetts.—^ lbs, com silage, 5 lbs. English hay, 5 lbs. ctover hay, 

2 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal, 1 lb. cotton-seed meal, 1 lb. oil 
meal. 

Michigan. — 27.5 lbs. corn silage, ^ lbs. clover hay, ^ lbs. timothy hay, 
3.6 lbs. bran, J lb. oats, 1 lb. rye, J lb. oil meal. 

1 Bui. 38. 



Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow. 479 

Minnesota. — 8 lbs. corn stover, 7 lbs. clover and timothy hay, 5 lbs. sheaf 
oats, 3 lbs. ruta-bagas, 2 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. oats, 3 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. 
oil meal. 

Nebraska. — 20 lbs. prairie hay, 10 lbs. corn stover, 5.7 lbs. com meal, 2.9 
lbs. bran, 1.4 lbs. oil meal. 

New Hampshire. — 10 lbs. clover and witch-grass hay, 10 lbs. com stover, 
5 lbs. untlirashed barley, 2 lbs. corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. shorts, 2 
lbs. cotton-seed meal. 

New Jersey. — 24 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. bran, 4 lbs. oats, 

2 lbs. oil meal. 

New York. — 25 lbs. corn silage, 7 lbs. mixed hay, 4 lbs. com meal, 5 
lbs. bran, ^ lb. oil meal, I lb. cotton-seed meal. 

North Carolina. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. fodder corn, 3 lbs. com meal, 

3 lbs. bran, 1 lb. cotton-seed meal. 

Ohio. — 10 lbs. clover hay, 20 lbs. corn stover, 8 lbs. com meal, 3 lbs. corn 
and cob meal, 1 lb. bran, 8 lbs. roots. 

Pennsylvania. — 45 lbs. com silage, 7 lbs. mixed hay, 6 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. 
cotton-seed meal. 

Texas. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 13 J lbs. sorghum hay, 1.3 lbs. com meal, 2.6 
lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2.2 lbs. cotton seed, 1.3 lbs. wheat bran. 

Utah.— S5 lbs. alfalfa hay, 6f lbs. wheat bran, 3^ lbs. barley. 

Vermont— 35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. mixed hay, 2 lbs. bran, 3.2 lbs. com 
meal, 1 lb. oil meal, .8 lb. cotton-seed meal. 

West Virginia. — 48 lbs. com silage, 2 J lbs. corn and cob meal, 2J lbs. 
ground wheat, 2J lbs. oats, 2^ lbs. barley meal, 

Washington. — 15 lbs. alfalfa hay, 7 lbs. bran, 7 lbs. shorts, 2 lbs. malt 
sprouts. 

Wisconsin. — 40 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. clover hay, 6 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. pea 
meal. 

Canada.— '^ lbs. turnips, 7 lbs. wheat chaff, 15 lbs. silage, 2 J lbs. oata, 
2J lbs. pea meal. 



CHAPTER XXES. 



INYESTIGATIONS WITH SHKEP. 

732. Periods of gestation. — Tessier, in a report to tlie Academy 
of Sciences, Paris, ^ gives the results of his observations on the 
period of gestation of 912 ewes. The shortest period for the ewe 
carrying her lamb was 146 days, and the longest 161, a range of 
15 days. More than three-fourths of the ewes yeaned between 
the 150th and 154th day after impregnation, bringing the average 
about 152 days, or 21 weeks and 5 days. Randall's statement^ 
as to the period of gestation coincides with that of Tessier. 

733. Composition of ewe's milk. — Konig^ gives the composi- 
tion of ewe's milk as below. For comparison, the table gives the 
average composition of cow's milk as stated by the same author. 

Composition of ewe^s milk, cow's milk heing given for comparison — 

Konig. 





Water. 


Casein 

and 

albumen. 


Fat. 


Sugar. 


Ash. 


Average 32 analyses ewe's 
milk 


Per ct. 

80.82 
87.17 


Per ct. 

6.52 
3.55 


Per ct. 

6.86 
3.69 


Per ct. 

4.91 
4.88 


Per ct. 
.89 


Average 793 analyses cow's 
milk 


.71 







734. Ewe's milk. — In America sheep are not generally used for 
producing milk for man, as in many districts abroad, especially 
in mountain regions, where this milk is extensively employed, 
partly for direct consumption and partly for the manufacture of 
cheese. Ewe's milk differs from cow's milk mainly in its greater 
proportion of fat and protein. Much higher percentages than 

» According to Colman, Sheep of Great Britain, p. 250. 

* The Practical Shepherd, p. 207. 

' Chem. d. meDsch. Nahr. u. Genus-mitteL 



Investigations with Sheep. 



481 



the average given in tlie preceding table have often been found 
by investigators. ^ 

The yield of milk by sheep will vary greatly according to the 
condition of feed and the breed. Martiny states 2 that the yield 
of Friesian milk sheep in Westphalia, Germany, is about four 
quarts of milk daily for four months. These sheep lamb once a 
year, dropping two or three lambs. Three sheep are estimated 
to consume as much feed as one cow. Ordinary sheep yield from 
100 to 150 pounds of milk per year, while the milk breeds pro- 
duce 300 pounds or more. ^ 

The period of lactation for sheep is from four to six months. 

735. Weight of lambs at birth. — The weight of lambs at birth 
will vary with the breed, ranging from 5.5 to 12 and even 15 
pounds, the latter weight being unusual. 

At the Ontario Agricultural College, * Brown reports the fol- 
lowing weights of pui-e-bred and grade lambs from Canadian ewes: 



Weight of 


lartibs at hirth - 


- Ontario 


Agricultural College. 


Breed. 


Pure-bred. 


Cross-bred 

with Canadian 

grade ewes. 


Lincoln 


Lbs. 

9.0 
9.25 
7.0 
7.25 
12.0 
11.0 
9.5 
9.0 
7.5 


Lbs. 
8.3 


Leicester 


9.5 


CoU'wold 


8.0 


Highland 


9.0 


Clieviot 


9.0 


Oxford 


10.5 


Shropsliire 


9.5 


Hanipsliire 


10 


Southdown 


10.5 


Merino 


8.0 









736. Feeding milk to lambs. — At the Wisconsin Station ^ the 
writer endeavored to ascertain whether lambs make as good use 
of food given them as other farm animals, by rearing them on 

1 See Staz. Sper. Ag. Ital. 23, p. 572; Analyst, 1893, p. 248; Fleischmann, 
Milchwirtsehalt, 1893, p. 54. 

2 Die Milch, 1871, p. 183. 

3 Concerning yield of milk from sheep, see Weiske, Joum. f. Landw., 
1881, p. 451; Rodiczky, Oestr. Ldw. Wochenbl., 1886, No. 47; Besana, 
Analyst, 1893, p. 248; Goltz, Landw., Ill, p. 460; Shepperd, Agrl. Science^ 
VI, p. 397. 

■• Kept. 1885. 6 Kept. 1890. 

31 



482 Feeds and Feeding. 

cow's milk and other appropriate feeding stuffs. The four lambs 
in the trial were from large high-grade merino ewes sired by a 
pure -bred Shropshire ram. They were vigorous, growthy speci- 
mens, ten days old at the beginning of the trial, averaging ten 
I>ounds each in weight. At first they were fed cow's milk at 
blood heat, this milk constituting their only food for twenty-one 
days, after which skim milk, oats and green clover were suj^plied. 
The following data show the food required for 100 pounds of gain 

with these lambs, beginning at 10 days of age: 

Feed per 100 
Period. Feed given. lbs. gain. 

Pounds. 
First period, 21 days Cow's milk 579 

(Sweet skim milk 830 

Second period, 115 days \ Ground oats 119 

(Green clover 262 

At the close of the last period, when 167 days old, the lambs 
averaged 79 pounds each, showing a daily gain, including birth 
weight, of nearly one-half pound each. (356, 659) 

The heavy gains which followed the use of cow's milk in this 
trial suggest the profitable use of that article in forcing lambs 
to meet the requirements of special markets, e. g., '^ Christmas 
lambs." 

737. Lambs compared with pigs. — At the Michigan Agricult- 
ural College, 1 Miles fed Essex pigs, eleven days old, cow's milk 
for four weeks, with the results shown in the following table: 

Cow's milk required for 100 pounds gain by young Essex pigs — 
Michigan Agricultural College. 



1st week. 
720 lbs. 



2d week. 
792 lbs. 



3d week. 
1,181 lbs. 



4th week. 
1,013 lbs. 



Av. for four 
weeks. 

925 lbs. 



During the third week of the trial the pigs were ''off feed," 
so that the average is somewhat too high. 

Making reasonable allowance for this, the lambs fed in the Wis- 
consin trial noted above lead in the gains made from cow's milk. 



1 Kept. Mich. Bd. of Agr., 1866, p. 01. 



Investigations with Sheep. 



483 



738. Relative economy of lambs and pigs. — Elsewhere (831) is 
shown the feed required by pigs before weaning for 100 pounds 
of gain. From these figures and those reported in Article 736 
the data given below are deduced. 

Feed required for 100 pounds of increase by young pigs and lambs — 
Wiscoiisin Station. 



Feed. 


Pigs. 


Lambs. 


Meal 


Lbs. 

231 
534 


Lbs. 
119 


Skim milk 


830 


Oreen clover 


262 








Meal equivalent 


320 


284 







The above data show that before weaning pigs require 231 
pounds of meal and 534 pounds of skim milk for 100 pounds of 
gain. Estimating 6 pounds of milk equal to one of meal, ac- 
cording to the Danish formula, (888) we have 320 pounds of meal 
or equivalent as the feed for 100 pounds of gain with pigs before 
weaning. During the second period of the trial with lambs, the 
following quantities of feed were required for 100 pounds of gain: 
119 pounds of meal, 830 of milk and 262 pounds of green clover. 
Estimating the milk at the same equivalent in meal as before, 
and ten pounds of green clover equal to one of meal, we have 
284 pounds of grain or grain equivalent as the feed required 
for 100 pounds of gain with young lambs, or thirty-six pounds 
less than that required by the pigs. From this it is apparent 
that lambs make at least as economical gains for feed consumed 
as do pigs of the same age. 

739. The milking qualities of ewes. — Instructive experiments 
were conducted by Shepperd, ^ at the Wisconsin Station, to de- 
termine the milking qualities of high-grade Shropshire ewes. 
Lambs at foot were muzzled except at regular periods, when each 
was allowed to take milk from its dam while the attendant drew 
milk from the other teat. The amount of milk yielded by the 
ewes was determined by weighing each lamb on a delicate scale 



'■ Agricultural Science, VI, pp. 397^05. 



4S4 



Feeds and Feeding. 



immediately before and after sucking. The results are shown 
below: 

Yieid, per cent, of fat and specific gravity of ewe's millc — Wisconsin 

Station. 



No. of ewe. 


No. of days 
tested. 


Daily milk 
yield. 


Per cent. fat. 


Specific 
gravity. 


1 

2 
3 
4 


10 
6 
6 
6 


3.9«lbs. 
2.83 lbs. 
3.03 lbs. 
2.51 lbs. 


5.2 
5.4 

5.62 
0.25 


1.037 
1.049 
1.037 
1.036 



From the above we learn that four ewes gave from 2.5 to 4 
pounds of milk each daily, containing from 5.2 to 6.25 per cent. 
of fat. The milk was of high specific gravity, showing a large 
content of solids. (825) 

740. Feed required for 100 pounds of milk. — Ewes fed singly 
and in groups of two were given weighed quantities of feed and 
water, and the milk yield noted. The concentrates fed consisted 
of three parts bran and one part oil meal. This with clover hay 
of good quality, though a little coarse, and a few sliced potatoes^ 
constituted the ration. The results were as follows: 

Quantity of feed and water consumed by ewes in producing 100 
pounds of milk — Wisconsin Station. 



No. of ewe. 


Grain. 


Clover hay. 


Potatoes. 


Water. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1 


51 


61.6 


38 


293 


1} 


59 


6-5.5 


29 


417 


1} 


72 


63 


36 


404 



The above figures are helpful to the student in comparing the 
sheep with other domestic animals as an economical producer of 
milk. They show the ewe to be as economical as the cow in turn- 
ing hay and grain into milk. It should not be forgotten that 
while yielding milk the ewe is also growing a fleece. (694) 

741. Value of ewe's milk for lamb growing. — In conducting his 
studies with ewes and lambs, Shepperd noted the amount of milk 



Investigations with Sheep. 



485 



consumed by lambs and their gains, with the results reported 
in the table. In these trials the lamb was kept separate from 
the ewe, except when sucking. It was weighed both before and 
after sucking to ascertain the amount of milk yielded by the ewe. 
The results appear in the following table: 

DaUy gain, and gain per pound of ewe's mine, by young lambs — 
Wisconsin Station 



No. of lamb. 


Age of lamb. 


Gain per day. 


Gain per lb. of 
milk. 


1 
2 
3 
4 


Days. 

25 
28 
36 
34 


Lbs. 

.62 
.47 
.44 
.40 


Lbs. 

.156 
.166 
.145 
.159 



Here were daily gains ranging from .4 to over .6 of a pound per 
lamb, each pound of milk producing about .15 of a pound in- 
crease, live weight. Shepperd concludes his report with the state- 
ment that the gain of lambs, during the first month of their lives 
at least, is largely controlled by the quantity of milk yielded by 
the ewe, and as a consequence that ewes should be carefully se- 
lected for their milking qualities. (525, 825-8) 

742. Influence of shearing on milk yield. — Weiske^ conducted 
an experiment to ascertain the influence of shearing on the pro- 
duction of milk by sheep. A Southdown- Merino ewe weighing 
77 pounds was fed the following ration directly after lambing: 
Meadow hay, 1.1 pounds; beets, 2.2 pounds; ground barley, 1.1 
pounds. On this food she produced the following quantities of 
milk: 

Days after lambing, May.. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 
Pounds of milk 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1,7, 1.9, 2.0, 2.0, 2.2, 2.2. 

The milk contained from 14.28 to 16.51 per cent, total solids. 

During days following the last one noted above, the milk yield 

remained at 2.2 pounds, but decreased, when the ewe was shorn, 

May 20, as follows: 

May 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25. 

Pounds of milk 2.2, 2.0, 1.9, 1.7, 1.65, 1.57. 

» Landwirth., 1879, p. 329. 



486 



Feeds and Feeding. 



"WTien half a pound of flax seed was added to the ration the milk 

production increased as follows: 

May 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31. 

Pounds of milk 1.5, 1.7, 2.0, 2.1, 2.0, 2.1. 

The influence of the flax seed in overcoming the shock to the 
system through shearing is shown by a return to the normal milk 
flow through its use. 

743. Soiling ewes and lambs. — Because of their daintiness and 
the large variety of plants they crop, soiling sheep is impracti- 
cable. Desiring to ascertain, regardless of cost, the amount of food 
required by sheep for growth in summer, the writer conducted 
the trial reported below. ^ Ten large Merino ewes were chosen, 
each with a lamb at foot one month old, when the trial began, 
June 3. The lambs were vigorous, their sire being an imported 
Shropshire. With patience and laborious attention to every de- 
tail, the shepherd fed the lot successfully, with the results given 
in the following table: 

Feed required for 100 pounds gain wlien soiling etces and lanibs — 
Wisconsin Station. 





Feed for 100 pounds gain. 


Periods. 


Green 
clover. 


Green corn 
fodder. 


Hay. 


Oats. 


Mves and lambs, before tveaning. 
1st period, June 3- July 29 (57 days) 
2<1 period, July 29-Sept. 16 (49 days) 

Lambs only, after weaning. 
3d period, Sept. 16-Oct. 14 (28 days) 


Lbs. 

2,882 
555 


Lbs. 

478 
2,400 

915 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
4.5 




45 


292 


413 







Placing a fair price on the substances consumed, we find that 
100 pounds of increase was made at a reasonable cost. When we 
remember that the ewes would have preferred to do their own 
foraging, and would have eaten many weeds and weed seeds as 
well as better forage, we must conclude that evidence points to the 
sheep as one of the most economical meat producers on the farm. 

744. Sheep compared with lambs for fattening. — This impor- 
tant subject has received little attention at our Stations. The only 



» Itept. Wis. Expt. Sta., 1890. 



Investigations tvith Sheep. 



■487 



trial reported is by Hayes of the Minnesota Station. ^ Ten IS'orth 
Dakota half-bred Shropshire lambs were fed in opposition to ten 
Montana two-year-old grade Merino wethers. The feed consisted 
of wheat screenings and hay, the trial lasting eighty- four days, 
with results given below: 

Feeding lambs in opposition to mature loetliers — Minnesota Station. 



Breed. 


Total feed. 


Av. wt. 
at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Total 
gain. 


Daily 
gain. 


Feed for 100 
lbs! gain. 




Grain. 


Hay. 


Grain. 


Hay. 


Dakota Shropshire 
grade lambs 

Montana two-year- 
old Merino weth- 
ers 


Lbs. 
1,776 

2,110 


Lbs. 
609 

542 


Lbs. 
74 

107 


Lbs. 
244 

172 


Lbs. 
.29 

.20 


Lbs. 

728 

1,227 


Lbs. 
2.50 

315 







"We observe that the lambs gave the usual returns from wheat 
screenings and made satisfactory gains. On the other hand, 
the wethers gained only one-fifth of a pound per day, and con- 
sumed 70 per cent, more grain for a given gain than the lambs. 
Possibly when more trials are on record, the feeding qualities of 
lambs and mature sheep will show less difference than in this 
case; but it is well known that young animals give the best 
returns for feed consumed. 

745. Iowa Station breed test. — The most extensive breed test 
conducted in this country was at the Iowa Station ^ by Wilson 
and Curtiss. In the first trial there were ten wether lambs in 
each lot, most of which were selected in Canada especially for 
the trial. The Merinos in the first trial were of the ^JsTational 
Delaine strain, raised in Iowa. The Eange lambs were from 
"Wyoming. In the second trial there were nine lambs in each lot, 
mostly from Canada. The Merinos in this trial were of the 
Eambouillet strain, bred in Ohio. In the first trial the feeding 
lasted ninety days and in the second one hundred and five days, 
and was alike in all particulars for each lot. In closing the ex- 
periment the lambs were shipped to Chicago and there valued by 

iRept. 1893. 
2 Buls. 33-35. 



488 



Feeds and Feeding. 



experts both before and after slangliter 

the trials are summarized in the following tables: 



The leading results of 



Weight and gain of fattening wether lanibs in 


hreed test — Iowa Si 


ation. 




Av. 


age. 


Av. wt. at 
beginning. 


Av. daUy 
gain. 


Dry matter 

per 100 lbs. 

gain. 




First 
trial. 


Sec- 
ond 
trial. 


First 
trial. 


Sec- 
ond 
trial. 


First 
trial. 


Sec- 
ond 
trial. 


First 
trial. 


Sec- 
ond 
trial. 


Southdown 


Days. 

374 
371 
374 
394 
345 
347 
362 
367 
362 


Days. 

289 
279 
279 

285 
291 

268 

277 
277 


Lbs. 

91 
101 
119 
117 
121 
118 
132 
101 

82 


Lbs. 

65 

88 
95 
92 
94 

86 
85 
83 


Lbs. 
.4.5 


Lbs. 

.35 
.36 
.40 
.40 
.46 
.50 
.44 
.43 


Lbs. 

738 
718 
740 
740 
729 
653 
749 
785 
935 


Lbs. 

989 


Shropshire 




48 
52 
55 
55 
62 
52 
48 
29 


1,026 


Oxford 


1,031 


Suffolk 


1,036 


Lincoln 


910 


Cotswold 


848 


Leicester 


934 


Dorset 


989 


Merino 




Hambouillet 


2.55 
255 


74 

67 


.37 
.31 


1,029 


Shropshire ewes 

Range. 


"331 










1,030 


71 




37 


684 




















Frice and weight of dressed carcass and of fleece in breed test- 

Iowa Station. 



Breed. 



Southdown , 

Shropsliire 

Oxford 

Suffolli 

Lincoln 

Cotswold 

Leicester 

Dorset 

Merino 

Rambouillet 

Shropshire ewes. 
Range 



Price per 100 
lbs. live wt. 



First 
trial. 



$4 75 
4 63 
4 50 
4 25 



4 50 



Sec- 
ond 
trial. 



$5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 



5 00 
5 6; 



Per cent, 
dressed car- 
cass. 



Fii-st 
trial. 



55.4 
56.3 
55.2 
53.6 
55.7 
54.9 
57.8 
52.6 
51.8 



55.6 



Sec- 
ond 
trial. 



55.26 
52.88 
50.08 
52.54 
51.08 
53.57 
51.87 
54.11 



49.57 
54.55 



Av. wt. of 
fleece. 



First 
trial. 



Lbs. 

6.8 

8.8 

11.0 

7.7 

12.9 

12.7 

11.6 

6.8 

9.9 



5.1 



Sec- 
ond 
trial. 



Lbs. 

4.6 
7.8 
8.0 
5.2 
10.4 
9.8 
8.9 
6.0 



6.6 



Value of 

fleece per 

head. 



First 
trial. 



$0 



Sec- 
ond 
trial. 



64 
10 
1(> 



1 56 
1 41') 
1 33 

81] 



7:5 



Investigations with Sheep. 



489 



746. Lawes and Gilbert's breed test. — These investigators tested 
the comparative fattening qualities of the different English breeds 
of sheep. ^ Their data of the feed requirements for gain by the 
various breeds during fattening are as follows: 

Feed required for 100 pounds gain, live weight, with sJieep of various 
breeds — BotJiamsted Station. 



Breeds. 


Av. wt. 

at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Av. total 
increase 
per head. 


Feed consumed to produce 100 
lbs. increase, Uve weight. 




Oil calie. 


Clover hay. 


Swedes. 


Sussex 


Lbs. 

88 

114 

95 

91 

101 

120 


Lbs. 

53 
70 
45 
43 
45 
64 


Lbs. 

297 
291 
264 
263 
264 
2-53 


Lbs. 

285 
261 
252 
2-50 
2.51 
217 


Lbs. 
3,836 


Hampshire 


- 3,967 


Cross-bred wethers. 

Cross-bred ewes 

Leicester 


3,725 
3,671 
3,761 


Cotswold 


3,558 







747. Ontario College breed test. — At the Ontario Agricultural 
College, 2 Brown fed grade lambs of different breeds to test their 
relative fattening qualities, the trial beginning in November and 
closing in March, with the following results: 

Trial with grade wetJier lambs of several breeds — Ontario Agricultural 

College. 





Wt. on 
entry. 


Gain. 


Feed for 100 pounds gain. 


Breed. 


Hay. 


Roots. 


Oil 

calie. 


Oats. 


Peas. 


Bran. 


Cotswold 


Lbs. 

106 
109 
95 
122 
120 


Lbs. 

41 
31 
41 
43 
37 


Lbs. 

493 
46.5 
341 

386 
368 


Lbs. 

920 
1,239 

937 
1,007 
1,139 


Lbs. 

195 

252 

188 
200 
235 


Lbs. 

136 
181 
184 
180 
157 


Lbs. 

273 
358 
268 
263 
315 


Lbs. 
83 


Leicester. 


110 


Oxford 


80 


Shropshire 

Southdown 


81 
93 


Average 


110 


39 


411 


1,048 


214 


148 


295 


89 







The results of these trials present interesting studies, but should 
not be regarded as determining the relative merits of the several 
breeds. 



» Jour. Roy. Agrl. Soc, 1851, 1852, 1855; Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. II. 
2 Rept. 1885. 



490 



Feeds and Feeding. 



748. ** Self-feed " for fattening lambs. — Some feeders follow the 
practice of placing quantities of grain sufficient to last a week or 
more in a box arranged so that the grain passes down into the 
feed trough as rapidly as the sheep consume the supply below. 
The purpose of the ' ' self-feed " is to save the time and labor of 
the shepherd, and also to allow the animals to have grain before 
them at all times. Trials with self-feed are reported from the 
Michigan Station^ with ten lambs in each lot, and Minnesota Stii- 
tion"^ with eight lambs in each lot, the results being given below: 



Trials icith "seJf-feed' 



for fattening lambs — MicMgan and Minne- 
sota Stations. 



' 


Feed given. 


Wt.at 
begin- 
ning. 


Gain. 


Daily 

gain. 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 




Grain. 


Hay. 


Hay. 


Grain. 


Michigan. 

Self-feed. 
Corn 


Lbs. 

1,506 

1,838 

1,579 
1,703 

3,023 
2,225 


Lbs. 

961 
959 

1,097 
1,124 

432 
753 


Lbs. 

82 
80 

82 
80 

84 
78 


Lbs. 

248 
237 

328 
267 

333 
300 


Lbs. 

.23 
22 

.31 
.25 

.3.5 
.32 


Lbs. 

387 
405 

334 
421 

130 
251 


Lbs 

607 


Corn and bran 


776 


liegular feed. 
Corn 


481 


Corn and bran 


639 


Minnesota. 
Self-feed. 

Wheat screenings.... 
liegular. 

Wheat screenings.... 


908 
742 



Mumford, 3 reviewing his studies with the self- feed, writes: 
'■ ' The experiments are quite conclusive, extending as they do 
over a period of three years under varying conditions and with 
different lots of sheep. We are led to the conclusion that fatten- 
ing lambs by means of a self- feed is an exi^ensive practice, and that 
economy of production requires more attention to the variation in 
the appetites of the animals than can be given by this method." 

749. Fattening shorn lambs. — At the Michigan Station, ^ Mum- 
ford divided a bunch of twenty lambs into two lots of ten each. 
One lot was shorn and the other left. unshorn, both receiving 
similar treatment as to feed and care. The grain consisted of 
corn and wheat, equal parts by weight, fed with good clover hay. 

1 Bui. 113. UJul. 44. 3 Bui. 128, Mich. Expt. Sta. ■• Bui. 128. 



Investigations with Sheep. 



491 



The trial began in November, lasting thirteen weeks. Both lots 
were kept in a barn, the window in the pen containing unshorn 
lambs being kept open, while that in the pen of the shorn lambs 
was kept closed. In spite of this care the shorn lambs suffered 
from the cold. The result of the trial is tabulated below: 

Feeding shorn and unshorn lambs — Michigan Station. 





Feed eaten. 


Av. wt. 

at be- 

gining. 


Total 
gain. 


Daily 
gain. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 




Grain. 


Hay. 


Grain. 


Hay. 


Unshorn 

Shorn 


Lbs. 

1,164 

1,266 


Lbs. 

1,173 
1,336 


Lbs. 

85 
84 


Lbs. 

230 
161 


Lbs. 

.2.5 
.18 


Lbs. 

506 

786 


Lbs. 

510 
830 







The shorn lambs ate more food, drank less water and made 30 
per cent, less gain than the unshorn lambs. 

At the Wisconsin Station, ^ Craig studied the subject during 
four years, the first trial beginning in December, and subsequent 
ones earlier, the last two beginning in October. As with Mum- 
ford, Craig's results were unfavorable to shearing fattening lambs 
after winter begun, while they favored early shearing. His con- 
clusions are: 

"1. Fall shearing is a beneficial practice to prepare lambs that 
are six months old for the early winter market. 

"2. To secure the benefits of fall shearing it should be done 
early in the season, at least not later than October. 

''3. When done under such circumstances, the removal of the 
fleece hastens the fattening, and the gain is made at a slightly 
cheaper rate. 

"4. The results show that by shearing in the fall and again in 
the spring more wool is obtained than from a single spring 
shearing, but the market value of the two clippings is not any 
greater than that of the single clipping in which the fibers of the 
fleece are longer. 

'* 5. When the lambs are to be fattened during three or four of 
the winter months, there appears to be no practical advantage in 
fall shearing." 



Rept. 1894. 



492 



Feeds and Feeding. 



750. Exposure versus confinement. — Next to feed, the feeding 
place and the method of confinement are of importance in fatten- 
ing sheep. At the Minnesota Station, ^ Shaw fed four lots of 
eight lambs each under various conditions as to confinement. Lot 
I was kept out of doors continuously in a yard sheltered from the 
wind by a low building at one side. Lots II and III were con- 
fined in yards with an open shed for shelter. Lot IV was kept 
in a compartment of the barn having one large window facing 
the east, for ventilation. The fed for all lots was the same. The 
table below presents the results: 

F^ect of various methods of confinement on fattening lambs — Min- 
nesota Station. 





Aver- 
age 
weight. 


Av. 

daily 
gaiu. 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain. 


Where fed. 


Wheat 
screen- 
ings. 


Oil 
meal. 


Hay. 


Lot I, out of doors 


Lbs. 

80 

84 
78 
78 


Lbs. 

.28 
.36 
.32 
.28 


Lbs. 

804 
817 
668 
722 


Lbs. 

90 
91 
74 

80 


Lbs. 
316 


Lot II, in lot with shed.... 
Lot III, in lot with shed.... 
Lot IV, in stable 


127 
251 

283 







It will be seen that the lot kept out of doors made as rapid 
gains as that confined in the stable, but required somewhat more 
feed for a given gain. Lots II and III, kept in the shed, made 
the largest and Lot III the cheapest gain. 

At the Michigan Station, 2 Mumford kept one lot of lambs con- 
tinuously in an open yard in winter where they were sometimes 
drenched with rain and covered with snow. A second lot was 
fed in a barn, at no time being allowed to go outside. The re- 
sults were slightly in favor of the lambs kept indoors, but the 
difference was far less than would be supposed by persons who 
are not familiar with the hardiness of fattening sheep. The re- 
sults of this trial do not show that rain and snow are beneficial 
to the fattening sheep, but rather that indoor confinement may be 
as damaging as outdoor exposure. (561, 630) 



1 Bui. 44. 



2 Bui. 12s. 



Investigations with Sheep. 



493 



751. Water drank. — Several Stations have weighed the water 
drank by lambs while fattening. The following table presents a 
range of results helpful to those seeking information on this 
l>oint: 

Water drank by lambs on various rations during fattening — Mich- 
igan and Cornell Stations. 







d 


a 
-a 

cJcS 


Feed and water per 100 
lbs. gain. 


■S SB 

a-' 


Remarks. 


Qrain fed. 







1 




Com' 


Lbs. 

82 
80 

80 
85 
84 

81 
84 

59 
56 


Lbs. 

.31 
.25 

.28 
,22 
.18 

.38 
.13 

.19 

.22 


Lbs. 

3.02 
3.85 

4.83 
1.3.5 
2.03 

1.87 
.40 

3.02 
1.10 


Lbs. 

481 
639 

526 

583 
786 

406 


Lbs. 

3:B4 
421 

394 
530 

830 

243 
1,018 

457 

486 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

966 
1,515 

1,74G 

599 

1,148 

495 
314 

1,598 
505 


Lbs. 

702 
913 

804 

965 

1,397 

641 
1,516 

1,033 
880 


Conflned. 


34 com, J^ bran » 

J wheat, % oil 




Confined. 




Conflned. 


J^corn, K wheat = . . . 
34corn,>| wheat ''... 

Com and roots » 

•Sugar beets * 




Freedom of yard. 


1,146 

685 
4,900 

880* 
501 


Shorn 2d week of 

experiment. 
Conflned. 
Conflned. 


1 part oil meal, 2 
parts cotton-seed 
meal, 4 pts. bran ■> 

7 parts corn, 1 part 
oats ^ 


505 
470 


Warm bam. 







* Silage. 

752. Weight of fattened sheep. — At the Ontario College, ^ 
Brown reports the following weights of fat shorn shearlings (sheep 
once shorn) : 

Live weight of fat shorn wethers at ^J/S days — Ontario Agricultural 

College. 



Average 

weight of 

tops. 



Average 

weight of 

culls. 



Mean 
weight. 



Daily 

gain per 

head. 



Leicester high grades. 

Leicester grades 

Oxford grades 

Shropshire grades 

Southdown grades 

Merino grades 



Lbs. 

242 

189 
186 
185 
165 
138 



Lbs. 



147 
148 
133 



Lbs. 

242 
189 
167 
167 
149 
138 



Lbs. 

.54 
.40 
.37 
.37 
.33 
.31 



Mean, 



184 



175 



.39 



1 Bui. 113, Mich. Sta. 
3 Bui. 47, Cornell Sta. 



2 Bui. 128, Mich, Sta. 
* Kept. 1882, 



41)4 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The weight of lat sheep of the several breeds competing for 
prizes at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago, during the years 
1878 to 1884, both inclusive, ' are shown in the following table: 

Weight of fat sheep of various breeds — American Fat-StocJc Show, 

Chicago. 



Breed. 


Wether 
2yi"S. 
old or 
over. 


Wether 
1 yr. 

and un- 
der 2 
yi"s. 


Wether 
under 1 
yr. old. 


Ewe 2 
yrs. or 
over. 


Ewe 1 

yr- 

and 
under 
2 yrs. 


Ewe 

under 

lyr. 

old. 


Cotswold 


Lbs. 

2-'»8 
263 
205 
223 
137 
221 


Lbs. 

liH) 
239 
172 
181 
112 
188 


Lbs. 

U'2 
151 
119 
117 

79 
118 


Lbs. 

273 
238 
169 
216 
101 
213 


Lbs. 

235 
204 
130 
208 
73 
165 


Lbs. 
127 


Other lon^ wools 


112 


.Southdown 


97 


Other middle wools 


87 


xVmerican merino 


52 


Grades or crosses 


122 







753. Daily gain for various breeds. — The best daily gains^ with 
fat wethers at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago, between 
the years 1879 and 1882, both inclusive, are as follows: 



Weight and daily gain of wether maJdng the most rapid gain ■ 
can Fat-Stock Show, Chicago. 

Wethers two and under three years. 



• Ameri- 



Year. 



1879... 

1881... 



Breed. 



Leicester. 
Cotswold. 



Age in 
days. 



969 
933 



Weight 



Lbs. 

300 

281 



Av. gain per 

day since 

birth. 



Lbs. 

.31 
.30 



Wethers one and under two yeare. 



1878... 
1880... 
1882... 



Cotswold 

Grade Oxford , 
Leicester 



535 


220 


612 


232 


600 


295 



.41 
.38 
.49 



Wethere under one year. 



1878. 
1881. 
1882. 



CotsAvold 

Southdown . 
Leicester 



170 


152 


213 


193 


235 


178 



.90 
.75 



» Trans. Dept. Agr. 111., 1884, p. 228. 



'^ Loc. cit. 



Investigations with Sheep. 



495 



754. Weight of carcass. — Lawes and Gilbert' found in trials 
with sheep of the various breeds the following weights of dressed 
carcass with well-fattened animals: 

MarlcetaMe produce for each 100 pounds unfasted weight of sheep, in- 
cluding wool — Rothamsted Station. 



Breed. 



Sussex 

Hanipshires 

Cross-bred wetbers 

Cross-bred ewes 

Leicesters 

Cotswolds 



Mutton 
(less tallow). 


Wool. 


Lbs. Ozs. 

53 3 
53 6 
51 2 
50 10 
50 11 
53 6 


Lbs. Ozs. 

4 

3 7 

4 10 

5 6 
5 9 
5 4 



Eelative to live and dead weights, the conclusions of these in- 
vestigators are: 

''Hoggets or tegs (ewes or wethers under twelve months old) 
in a lean or store condition will contain about one-half of their 
weight carcass, and about one-half offal. 

"Shorn sheep, sufficiently fat for the market, will contain 
about 56 pounds of carcass in every 100 pounds of the unfasted 
live weight. 

"Sheep in an ordinary state of fatness yield from 7 pounds to 14 
pounds of offal or loose fat per head, according to breed and size; 
the long- wools giving the least, and the Downs the most." 

755. Fat-Stock Show test. — At the American Fat-Stock Show 
in 1884, 2 animals competing for prizes were slaughtered, with the 
results shown in the following table: 

Slaughter tests with sheep at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chicago. 



Age of animals. 


Number. 


Live weight 
at slaughter. 


Weight of 
dressed car- 
cass. 


Per cent. 


Two years or over 

One year, under two... 
Under one year 


o 
4 
2 


Lbs. 

248 

171 

99 


Lbs. 

156 

105 

67 


63 
61 
57 







1 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1851, p. 414; Rothamsted Memoirs, 1852, VoL 11, 
p. 175. 2 Breeder's Gazette, 1884, p. 824. 



496 



Feeds and Feeding. 



756. Shrinkage in shipping. — Cooke, of the Colorado Station, ^ 
after fattening selected Western sheep and lambs on alfalfa hay, 
wheat, corn and roots, shipped them from Fort Collins, Colorado, 
to Chicago, with results shown in the table: 

ShrinTcage and dressed weight of Western sheep, shipped from Colorado 
to Chicago — Colorado Station. 



Kind. 


Weight at 

Fort 

Colhns. 


Weight at 

Chicago 

stock 

yard. 


Per cent, 
shrinkage 


Per cent, 
dressed 

carcass to 

Chicago 

weight. 


Per cent, 
tallow to 
Chicago 
weight. 


Western lambs 

Western wethers ... 
Mexican sheep 


Lbs. 

149.0 

168.0 

99.5 


Lbs. 

135 

153 

92 


9.4 
9.0 
6.5 


57.0 
55.0 
53.5 


9. 

8.3 

8.5 



By the above we learn that selected Western lambs weighing 
149 pounds at Fort Collins, Colorado, shrunk 14 pounds, or 
9.4 per cent., on shipment to Chicago. These lambs dressed 
57 per cent, of their Chicago weight, 9 per cent, of which was 
tallow; that is, for each 100 pounds live weight there were 9 
pounds of tallow and 48 pounds of carcass ready for the butcher's 
block. 

I Bui. 32. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

EXPERIMENTS IN FATTENING SHEEP — WOOL PEODUCTION. 

I. Feeds and Fattening. 

757. Indian corn. — Since a large proportion of the sheep in 
this country are fattened on corn, both student and stockman 
are interested in learning the quantity of this grain required for 
a given gain. In the table below are presented the results of five 
trials with corn for fattening lambs at three Stations. The aver- 
age of these trials should constitute reliable data as to the quan- 
tity of corn and hay required to produce one hundred pounds of 
gain with lambs. 

Fattening lambs on corn and Tiay — Michigan, Wisconsin and 
Minnesota Stations. 



Where fed. 


Days 
fed. 


Feed eaten. 


Av. 

wt. at 
begin- 
ning. 


Gain. 


Av. 

daily 
gain. 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 




Corn. 


Hay. 


Corn. 


Hay. 


Michigan * 


105 

105 

91 

66 

84 


Lbs. 

1,579 
1,50G 
1,208 
428 
1,103 


Lbs. 

1,097 

961 

1,142 

288 
849 


Lbs. 

82 
82 
85 
86 
71 


Lbs. 

328 
248 
233 
104 
211 


Lbs. 

.31 

.24 
.26 
.37 
.25 


Lbs. 

481 
607 
518 
411 
523 


Lbs. 
334 


Micliigan * 


387 


Miehiigan f 


490 


Wisconsin j 


277 


Minnesota ^ 


402 






Av. of 5 trials 


88 


1,165 


887 


81 


225 


.29 


507 


378 



* Bui. 113. t Bui. 128. J Kept, 1895. § Bui. 31. 

In the Wisconsin trial there were 5 lambs; in the other trials 
there were 10 lambs. 

From this table we learn that lambs averaging 81 pounds each 
during feeding trials averaging 13 weeks in length made gains 
of three- tenths of a pound per head daily, requiring about 500 
pounds of corn and 400 pounds of hay for 100 pounds of increase, 
live weight. (566, 845) 
32 



498 



Feeds and Feeding. 



758. Dry versus soaked corn for sheep. — Mueller ^ fed sheep 
on dry and soaked corn. Twenty sheep nearly two years old 
were fed 1.4 pounds of whole corn per day per head, ten animals 
receiving the grain dry and ten receiving it soaked with as much 
water as it would absorb. At the end of a period of ten weeks 
the live weight of the sheep fed dry corn had increased 6.6 pounds 
more jier head than the lot receiving soaked corn; after four weeks 
more, the live weight of the former lot had increased 12.1 pounds 
per head more than the second lot. The author explains the 
poorer utilization of the soaked corn by the decreased secretion 
of saliva when grain so treated was fed. (375) 

759. Wheat. — The low price ruling for wheat in recent years 
has stimulated much interest in its use for fattening sheep. A 
trial at the Michigan Station ^ by Mumford, in which wheat was 
fed, in opposition to corn, to lots of ten lambs each, is summar- 
ized in the following table: 

Feeding Iambs wheat in opposition to corn — 3IicMgan Station. 



Grain. 


Days 
fed. 


Feed eaten. 


Av. wt. at 
begin- 
ning. 


Gain. 


Av. 

daily 
gain. 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 




Grain. 


Hay. 


Grain. 


Hay. 


Corn 


91 
91 


Lbs. 

1,208 
1,201 


Lbs. 

1,142 
1,199 


Lbs. 

85 
85 


Lbs. 

233 
217 


Lbs. 

.26 
.24 


Lbs. 

518 
553 


Lbs. 
490 


Wheat 


552 



By the above we learn that the lambs fed wheat required more 
feed for a given gain and did not make quite so large daily gains 
as those fed corn. (166-8, 852) 

760. English experience with wheat. — Voelcker conducted three 
trials at the Woburn (England) Station to ascertain the feeding 
value of wheat as a grain for fattening sheep. ^ "Wheat meal was 
found unsatisfactory owing to the fact that the meal adhered to 
the jaws of the sheep when eating it, forming a sticky mass. 
Whole wheat was substituted, and the effect was remarkable; the 
sheep which would barely clean up the half-pound allowance of 

1 Braunschw. Landw. Zeit., 1885, p. 209; Jahresb. Agr. Chemie, 1885, 
p. 576. 

2 Bui. 128. » Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1886-88. 



Uxperiments in Fattening SJieep. 



499 



wheat meal readily ate three-fourths of a pound of whole wheat. 
Accordingly, during the remainder of th-e first and the two fol- 
lowing trials, whole wheat was fed. The following table summar- 
izes the results of the last two trials: 

Feeding tchole ivheat to sheep — Woburn {England) Station. 





Davs 
fed. 


Av. 

wt. at 
begin- 
ning. 


Feed given daily. 


Av. 

gain 
per 
day. 




Swede 
turnips. 


Chaffed 
hay. 


Wheat. 


First trial 


95 
112 


Lbs. 

156 
119 


■ Lbs. 

28 
20 


Lbs. 
h 


Lbs. 

3. 
4 


Lbs. 
3 


Second trial 


4 







These gains are satisfactory considering the length of the trials. 
Voelcker concludes from three seasons' experiments with wheat, 
oil meal, and cotton -seed meal, that whole wheat produced the 
cheapest gain at current prices for stock foods in England. 

761. Oats. — At the Michigan Station, i Mumford compared oats 
with corn in a feeding trial lasting 119 days with ten lambs in 
each lot, averaging 83 pounds, with results presented in the table: 
Feeding oats in opposition to corn — Michigan Station. 



Grain. 


Feed eaten. 


Av. 

wt. at 
begin- 
ning. 


Gain. 


Av. 

daily 
gain. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 




Grain 


Hay. 


Roots 


Grain 


Hay. 


Roots 


Oats 


Lbs. 

1,963 
1,757 


Lbs. 

1,694 
1,675 


Lbs. 

1,190 
1,190 


Lbs. 

83 
83 


Lbs. 

379 
443 


Lbs. 

.31 
.37 


Lbs. 

518 
396 


Lbs. 

447 
378 


Lbs. 
314 


Corn 


269 







In this trial the oats did not give as large daily gains as did 
the corn 5 further, it required 100 pounds or 25 per cent, more 
oats than corn for a given gain. Since 500 pounds of corn is 
shown to be the usual grain requirement for 100 pounds of gain 
with lambs, it is probable that further trials will show oats not 
far below corn in value, though they can hardly equal it. 

762. Bran. — At the Michigan Station, 2 Mumford fed corn in 
opposition to bran during a period of 119 days, to two lots of ten 

1 Bui. 107. 2 Bui. 107. 



500 



Feeds and Feeding. 



lambs averaging 83 pounds in weight, with the results given in 
the table: 
Feeding trial with bran and corn in opposition — Michigan Station. 



Grain. 


Feed eaten. 


Av. 

wt. at 

begin- 

ing. 


Gain. 


Av. 

daily 
gaiu. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 




Grain 


Hay. 


Roots 


Grain 


Hay. 


Roofs 


Com 


Lbs. 

1,757 

1,779 


Lbs. 

1,675 

1,728 


Lbs. 

1,190 
1,190 


Lbs. 

83 

82 


Lbs. 

443 
242 


Lbs. 

.37 
.20 


Lbs. 

396 
735 


Lbs. 

378 
714 


Lbs. 
269 


Bran 


492 







We learn from this trial that it required nearly twice as much 
bran as corn for the same gain. (175) 

763. Wheat screenings. — At the Minnesota Station, ^ Shaw fed 
lambs wheat screenings in opposition to wheat. Concerning the 
former he wrote: ''The screenings were under rather than over 
the average in quality, having but little wheat of any kind in 
them." 

One-tenth of the ration consisted of oil meal. There were eight 
lambs in each lot, the trial lasting 117 days, with results given 
below: 

Feeding wheat screenings in opposition to wheat — Minnesota Station. 



Grain. 


Feed eaten. 


Wt. 

at 
begin- 
ning. 


Gain. 


Daily 
gain. 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 




Grain 


Hay. 


Grain 


Hay. 


Wheat 


Lbs. 

1,753 
2,225 


Lbs. 

772 
753 


Lbs. 

80 

78 


Lbs. 

278 
300 


Lbs. 

.30 
.32 


Lbs. 

631 
742 


Lbs. 
277 


Screenings 


251 







By the above we learn that it required about 27 per cent, more 
wheat screenings than wheat to produce a given gain. The high 
feeding value of screenings for sheep in comparison with their 
cost in the Northwest is illustrated in this trial. (169) 

764. Shrunken wheat, wild buckwheat and pigeon-grass seed. — 
At the Minnesota Station, 2 Hayes fed four lots of ten lambs each 
for 84 days on rations of cracked corn, small wheat, wild buck- 



i Bui. 44. 



2 Rept. 1893. 



Experiments in Fattening SJieep. 



501 



wheat and pigeon-grass seed, respectively, with the results pre- 
sented in the table below: 

Feeding cracJced corn, small toheat, wild bucJcwJieat and pigeon-grass 
seed — Minnesota Station. 



Grain. 



Cracked com 

Small wheat 

Pigeon-grass seed 
"Wild bucli wheat. 



Feed eaten. 



Grain Hay 



Lbs. 

1,103 
1,505 
1,975 
1.934 



Lbs. 

849 
742 
427 
591 



Av. 
wt. at 
begin 
ning. 



Lbs. 

71 
74 
74 
75 



Gain, 



Lbs. 

211 

202 
226 
237 



Daily 
gain. 



Lbs. 

.25 

.24 

.27 
.28 



Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 



Grain Hay. 



Lbs. 

523 
745 

874 
816 



Lbs. 

402 
367 
189 
249 



The table shows that corn gave normal results, 523 pounds of 
that grain and 402 jjounds of hay making 100 pounds of gain. 
Of the other mill and elevator by-products there were required for 
100 pounds gain with lambs the following amounts: small wheat, 
745 pounds; wild buckwheat, 816; pigeon-grass seed, 874 pounds. 

765. Corn silage versus roots. — At the Michigan Station, * 
Mumford compared corn silage with roots for fattening lambs, 
with eight in each lot in the first trial and twenty in each lot in 
the second. In the first trial, lasting 84 days, sugar beets and 
corn silage were used, and in the second, lasting 119 days, ruta- 
baga turnips and corn silage were fed. In the first trial the 
lambs weighed 87 pounds, and in the second 73 pounds each, at 
the beginning. The grain fed consisted of two parts oats and 
one part bran in the first trial, and equal parts of oats and bran 
in the second. The table shows the results: 

Feeding corn silage in opposition to roots — Michigan Station. 



Trial. 


Feed eaten. 


Gain. 


Av. 

daily 
gain. 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain. 




Grain 


Hay. 


Roots 


Silage 


Grain 


Hay. 


Roots 


Silage 


First.. 


Lbs. 

672 

672 

2,345 

2,345 


Lbs. 

672 

536 

2,439 

1,974 


Lbs. 
3,172 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

288 
240 
589 
586 


Lbs. 

.43 
.36 
.25 
.25 


Lbs. 

233 
280 
398 
400 


Lbs. 

233 
223 
413 
337 


Lbs. 
1,101 


Lbs. 




3,014 


1,256 


Second 


13,413 


2,277 






8,108 


1,383 











» Buls. 84, 107. 



502 Feeds and Feeding. 

In the first trial, where sugar beets were fed in opposition to 
com silage, roots gave somewhat better results, while in the sec- 
ond, where ruta-bagas were fed, the results were slightly in favor 
of the corn silage. Until further trials we may consider roots 
and corn silage practically equal in feeding value for fattening 
lambs. Feeding roots or silage cut down the amount of grain 
required in fattening the lambs 25 to 40 per cent. (325, 393-5) 

766. Sugar beets. — At the Michigan Station, ^ Mumford fed 
sugar beets and hay only to lots of ten lambs each for 91 days, 
with the following results: 

Feeding sugar beets and hay to fattening lambs — Michigan 

Station. 

Pounds. 

Beets fed 5,685 

Hay fed 1,181 

Average weight at beginning 84 

Total gain 116 

Average daily gain .13 

Feed for 100 pounds of gain — 

Roots 4,600 

Hay 1,018 

We observe that the lambs made only half the usual daily gain 
when a full allowance of grain was given. Placing a value on 
roots proportionate to cost of production, we find that the use 
of roots without grain for lambs cannot be recommended, since 
root feeding is more expensive than a combination of roots and 
grain. (320) 

767. Rape. — At the Ontario Agricultural College, ^ Shaw di- 
vided a field of rape into three plats of an acre each, by means 
of hurdle fences, and placed fifteen lambs on each acre. To the 
lambs on the first acre no additional feed was given; those on the 
second received half a pound of oats each daily; those on the 
third were allowed an adjoining pasture, thus being provided 
with rape and grass at the same time. The acre of rape lasted 
the fifteen lambs fifty-eight days in each instance, though the 

> Bui. 128. 
2 Kept. 1891. 



Experiments in Fattening Sheep. 



503 



second acre was not eaten as bare as the others, 
summarized below: 



The results are 



Feeding tJiree acres of rape with 15 lambs to each acre — Ontario 
Agricultural College. 



Acre III. 
Rape and 
pasture. 



Weight of 15 lambs at commencement.. 

Average weight of lambs 

Weight of lambs at close 

Increased weight from 1 acre of rape 

Average individual increase 

Average daily increase 



Acre I. 


Acre II. 


Rape 


Rape and 


only. 


oats. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1,069. 


1,065. 


71. 


71. 


1,413. 


1,413. 


344. 


348. 


22.93 


23.67 


.39 


.40 



Lbs. 

1,064. 

71. 

1,484. 

420. 

28.0 

.47 



In this trial the oats did not increase the returns, while the past- 
ure proved very beneficial. In another trial ^ six lambs feeding 
on one-sixth of an acre gained 120 pounds in 42 days, the monthly 
gain being 14.28 pounds per lamb. At this rate one acre of rape 
would pasture 25 lambs two months and yield 762 pounds of 
increase. We may regard this amount as representing the ex- 
treme returns possible. (334—5) 

Trials with rape for lamb feeding were conducted at the Wis- 
consin Station 2 by Craig. In these trials corn, oats, oil meal, 
etc., were fed to lambs running on a rape pasture, with the results 
summarized below: 



Besults of three feeding trials loithlambs 


on rape - 


- Wisconsin Station. 


No. of 
lambs. 


Av. wt. at 
begin- 
ning. 


Area of 
rape plat. 


Length of 
feeding 
period. 


Grain 
eaten. 


Total 
gain. 


Av. daily 
gain. 


• 16 
21 
21 


Lbs. 

79 
77 
97 


Acres. 


Days. 

25 
70 
14 


Lbs. 

251 
1,440 

480 


Lbs. 

149 
414 
142 


Lbs. 

.37 

.28 
.48 



The above figures are commended to stockmen looking for ad- 
ditional feeding stuffs for sheep. Based on the returns from the 
second trial, an acre of rape, with somewhat less than one and 

» Loc. cit. ' Rept. 1894. 



504 



Feeds and Feeding. 



one-half tons of grain additional, will return 800 pounds of in- 
crease with lambs. After allowing liberally for the value of the 
grain, there are profitable returns from the rape field. 

768. Rape compared with blue-grass pasture. — At the Wiscon- 
sin Station 1 Craig studied the influence of rape forage and blue- 
grass pasture in the fattening of lambs. A bunch of 96 grade 
Shropshire lambs from Northern Wisconsin was divided into two 
lots of 48 each, one grazing on blue-grass pasture and the other 
liurdled on a rape field. In addition to this feed they were sup- 
plied a grain mixture of equal parts of peas and corn by weight. 
The lambs were fed on pasture or rape for four weeks, after which 
they were placed in feeding pens and the grain ration increased. 
During thB preliminary feeding of four weeks the 48 lambs on the 
rai)e pasture consumed .64 acres of rape, gaining 50 per cent, 
more in weight than the lot on blue-grass pasture. The results 
of the trial are summarized in the table below: 

llape compared with blue-grass pasture in preparing lambs for fat- 
tening — Wisco7isin Station. 



Preliminary period of four weeks on 
pasture with light grain ration. 



Fattening period of twelve 
weeks in pens. 



Pasture. 



Rape 

Bhie-grass. 



Av. 

wt. at 
begin- 
ning. 



Lbs. 

63 
67 



Av. 

gain 

per 

week. 



Hay 

eaten. 



Lbs. 

2.6 
1.7 



Lbs. 

2,488 
2,704 



Grain 

eaten. 



Lbs. 

4,084 
4,084 



Av. 

gain 

per 

head. 



Lbs. 

20 

18 



Feed for 100 
pounds gain. 



Hay. Grain 



Lbs. 

261 
315 



Lbs. 

429 
476 



During the four weeks preliminary feeding, the lambs on rape 
with some grain gained 2.6 pounds per head weeklj^, while those 
on blue-grass gained but 1.7 pounds. During the twelve weeks 
fattening which followed the preliminary period just described 
the rape-fed lambs gained 20 pounds, while those on the bine-grass 
pasture gained 18 pounds. The amount of grain required for 100 
pounds of gain was also less with the lambs previously fed on 
rape. This trial tends to establish a secondary value for rape in 
sheep feeding. 

' Rept. 1897. 



Experiments in Fattening Slieep. 



505 



769. Rape as a second crop. — In another trial Shaw^ sowed 

rape August 12 on ground wliicli had grown a crop of winter 

wheat the same season. On October 17, sixty lambs were turned 

into this field and pastured twenty-five days without other feed, 

with results as follows: 

Pounds. 

Weight of 60 Iambs at beginning of experiment 3,423 

Weight at close 3,813 

Increase in weight 390 

Increase in weight per acre 179 

Average individual increase 6.5 

Average daily individual increa.se .26 

This is a most favorable showing for rape as a second crop. 
The feeder watching for opportunity to increase profits will not 
be slow in following this example. 

770. Alfalfa hay.— At the Michigan Station, 2 H. W. Mumford 
fed one lot of ten lambs on a ration containing alfalfa hay for 
roughage, giving a second lot of ten, clover hay, both receiving 
the same allowance of shelled corn and roots. The results of the 
trial, which lasted foui-teen weeks, are summarized in the follow- 
ing table: 

Alfalfa hay compared with clover My — Michigan Station. 





Av. 

weekly 

gain per 

lamb. 


Feed per 100 
lbs. gain. 


Digestible nutri- 
ents per day per 
1,000 pounds. 


Nu- 
tri- 
tive 
ratio. 


Dry 

mat- 
ter 
per 

100 

lbs. 

gain. 


Bation. 


Rough- 
age. 


Grain 


Pro- 
tein. 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 


Ether 
ex- 
tract. 


Alfalfa, corn 
and roots 

Clover hay, corn 
and roots 


Lbs. 
2.45 

2.31 


Lbs. 
355 

354 


Lbs. 
395 

423 


Lbs. 
2.2 

2.0 


Lbs. 
15.6 

16.0 


Lbs. 
.84 

.87 


1:7.9 
1:8.4 


Lbs. 
716 

718 



It will be seen that the dry matter consumed for 100 pounds of 
gain was practically equal for the two lots, but the heavier gains 
were made by those getting alfalfa. Commenting on this trial, 
Mumford writes: "By feeding to each lamb an average of 1.3 
pounds of alfalfa hay per day, with corn and roots, the lambs so 

^ Rept. Ont. Agr. Col., 1891. ^ Bui. 136. 



506 



Feeds and Feeding. 



fed gained an average of 2.45 pounds per week, or 34.4 pounds 
during the whole period of fourteen weeks." (822) 

771. rattening Western sheep on alfalfa hay. — At the Colorado 
Station, i Cooke conducted an experiment in feeding wheat, corn, 
sugar beets and alfalfa hay to Western and Mexican yearlings and 
lambs, averaging 88 pounds each, during a period of 98 days, 
with results shown in the following table: 

Feeding Western and Mexican sheep — Colorado Station. 



Grain. 


Feed eaten. 


Gain. 


Daily 
gain. 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 




Grain 


Hay. 


Beets. 


Grain 


Hay. 


Beets. 


Wheat 


Lbs. 

980 
1,815 
1,315 


Lbs. 

5,009 
6,189 

5,682 
4,728 


Lbs. 

8,150 


Lbs. 

661 
640 
575 
607 


Lbs. 

.34 
.33 
.29 
.31 


Lbs. 

148 
205 
229 


Lbs. 

758 
959 
988 
779 


Lbs. 
1,233 


Wheat 




Corn 






9,792 


1,618 











In all cases the daily gains of the sheep were satisfactory. Be- 
cause of its nutritive quality and palatability, alfalfa hay is more 
than mere '^filling," assisting materially in fattening, thus re- 
ducing the amount of grain which would otherwise be required. 

772. Oat straw. — At the Michigan Station, 2 H. W. Mumford 
fed one lot of ten lambs upon oat straw for roughage, and a second 
lot of ten upon clover hay and cut corn stover, both getting corn 
and roots in addition. The results of the trial, which lasted four- 
teen weeks, are shown in the following table: 

Oat straio compared with corn stover — Michigan Station. 





Av. 

weekly 

gain per 

lamb. 


Feed per 100 
lbs. gain. 


Digestible nutri- 
ents per day per 
1,000 pounds. 


Nu- 
tri- 
tive 
ratio. 


Dry 

mat- 
ter 
per 
100 
lbs. 

gain. 


Ration. 


Rough- 
age. 


Grain 


Pro- 
tein. 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 


Ether 
ex- 
tract. 


Oat straw, corn 
and roots 

Clover hay, corn 
stover, corn 
and roots 


Lbs. 
2.03 

2.38 


Lbs. 
396 

344 


Lbs. 
478 

408 


Lbs. 
1.5 

1.8 


Lbs. 
16.3 

15.2 


Lbs. 
.78 

.82 


1 : 12.6 
1 :9.7 


Lhs. 
833 

653 



» Bui. 32. 



2 Bui. 136. 



Experiments in Fattening Sheep. 



507 



It will be seen that thougli oat straw was useful it was inferior 
to the combination of clover hay and corn stover; 180 pounds, or 
27 per cent., more dry matter being required for the same gain. 
Commenting on oat straw as a feed for lambs, Mumford writes: 
''Lambs fed on oat straw as the fodder part of the ration consumed 
an average of 1.25 pounds per lamb per day. The average total 
gain of each lamb was 28.5 pounds, or 2.03 pounds per week. 
The results of this experiment seem to indicate that the value of 
oat straw in the fodder ration of fattening lambs has been hitherto 
underrated." 

773. Millet hay.— At the Michigan Station, i H. W. Mumford 
fed two lots of lambs of ten each, giving to one millet hay for 
roughage and the other clover hay and oat straw, both lots receiv- 
ing corn and roots additional. The trial, which lasted fourteen 
weeks, gave the results summarized in the ta,ble. 

Millet 7my compared ivlth clover hay and oat straw — Michigan Station. 





Av. 

weekly 

gain per 

lamb. 


Feed per 100 
lbs. gain. 


Digestible nutri- 
ents per day per 
1,000 pounds. 


Nu- 
tri- 
tive 
ratio. 


Dry- 
mat- 
ter 
per 
100 
lbs. 
gain. 


Ration. 


Rough- 
age. 


Grain 


Pro- 
tein. 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 


Ether 
ex- 
tract. 


Millet hay, corn 
and roots 

Clover hay, oat 
straw, corn 
and roots 


Lbs. 
1.84 

2.26 


Lbs. 
355 

357 


Lbs. 
523 

430 


Lbs. 
1.8 

1.8 


Lbs. 
16.1 

15.6 


Lbs. 
.81 

.83 


1:10.4 
1:9.9 


Lbs. 
846 

738 



The clover-hay oat-straw ration proved superior to that con- 
taining millet hay, the difference being 14 per cent, in favor oi 
the former measured by the dry matter consumed per 100 pounds 
of gain. Commenting on the use of millet hay for feeding lambs, 
Mumford writes: ''More care is necessary in feeding millet hay 
to fattening lambs than any other coarse fodder. Unless fed in 
small quantities it induces scour. Each lamb in the lot receiv- 
ing millet hay was fed an average of .9 of a pound per day 

» Bui. 136. 



503 



Feeds and Feeding. 



throughout the feeding period and gained 25.8 pounds per lamb. " 
The gain for the other lot was 31.7 pounds per head. (272, 482) 
774. Corn stover. — At the Michigan Station, ^ U. W. Mumford 
fed corn stover to one lot of ten lambs, and clover hay and bean 
straw to a second lot of ten, both getting corn and roots in addi- 
tion. The results of this trial, which lasted fourteen weeks, are 
J) resented in the following table: 

Corn stover compared with clover hay and bean straw — Michigan 

Station. 



Eation. 


Average 

weekly 

gain per 

lamb. 


Feed per 100 
pounds. 


Dry matter 
per 100 




Roughage 


Grain. 


pounds gain 


Corn stover, corn and roots.... 

Clover hay, bean straw, corn 

and roots 


Lbs. 
2.15 

2.30 


Lbs. 
383 

373 


Lbs. 
451 

421 


Lbs. 
676 

735 







Regarding this trial Mumford says: ' ' The principal objection to 
feeding corn stalks (stover) to lambs is that, when fed in the bun- 
dle from racks, the lambs waste a large percentage of the fodder. 
The only satisfactory method of feeding them is in racks after 
they have been cut in a cutting box or silage machine. The 
stalks fed in this experiment were cut with an ordinary silage 
cutter and fed from racks. The average daily ration of this 
fodder was 1.18 pounds for each of the ten lambs. Each lamb 
in the lot receiving corn stalks as the fodder ration gained an 
average of 2. 15 pounds per week, or 30. 2 pounds for the whole 
period. Such flattering results should make every sheep feeder 
value his corn stalks highly, and induce him to take every pos- 
sible precaution to properly preserve them. ' ' 

775. Grain for lambs before weaning. — At the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion, 2 Craig fed grain to high-grade Shropshire lambs before 
weaning, corn, oats, bran and peas being used in the different 
trials. The grain was placed in a trough where it was accessible 
to the lambs through a "creep," while it could not be reached 
by the dams. The lambs were induced to eat grain at as early a 

» Bui. 136. 2 Ropt. 1897. 



Experiments in Fattening Sheep. 



509 



date as possible. On an average they were fed grain ten weeks 
before being weaned. The results of the trials, which were con- 
tinued during three seasons with 66 lambs in all, are shown in the 
following table: 



Feeding various grains to lamhs he/ore weaning 


— Wisconsin Station. 


Grain fed. 


Av. wt. at 
beginning. 


Av. gain 
per week. 


Grain per 
100 lbs. gain 


Com meal 


Lbs. 

42 
42 
41 
38 


Lbs. 

3.8 
3.8 
3.5 
3.7 


Lbs. 
63 


Whole oats 


86 


Wheat bran 


77 


Cracked peas* 


73 







* Average of two triaLs. 

It is shown by the table that corn meal was the most econom- 
ical feed during these trials, less being required than of other 
grains and as good weekly returns secured. Corn meal will prove 
satisfactory for young lambs before weaning if they are designed 
for the butcher. 

776. Corn alone and in combination. — At the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion i grain in combination was fed against corn meal alone to high- 
grade Shropshire lambs before and after weaning. The results 
of one trial with five lambs in each of three lots are shown in the 
followins: table: 



Corn meal compared with grain mixtures - 


— Wisconsin Station. 


Grain ration. 


Av. wt. at 
beginning 


Av. gain in 
8 weeks. 


Total grain 
eaten. 


Grain eaten 

per 100 lbs. 

gain. 


Corn meal onlv 


Lbs. 

58 
60 
57 


Lbs. 

28 

28 
28 


Lbs. 

37 
43 
59 


Lbs. 
26 


Corn meal and oats 

Corn meal and peas 


31 

42 



After weaning — 8 weeks. 



Corn meal only 

Corn meal and oats. 
Corn meal and peas. 

1 Eept. 1897. 




13 
14 
13 



510 Feeds and Feeding. 

It is sliown that corn meal alone proved a more economical feed 
than in combination with oats or peas before weaning and of equal 
value to these combinations after weaning. 

It is probable that corn meal will force the largest and most 
economical gain with lambs both before and after weaning, the 
protein they require being secured from the dam's milk and past- 
ure grass. It is not prudent, however, to use corn alone for ewe 
Iambs which are to be used later for breeding purposes, for this 
grain builds fat and not bone and muscle. 

777. Feeding grain to lambs before weaning. — At the Wiscon- 
sin Station, ^ Craig conducted trials with lambs receiving grain 
before weaning, other lots fed in comparison getting none. Among 
the conclusions reached are the following: 

''The continuous grain feeding from birth until the lambs were 
about ten months old did not produce any noticeable difference in 
the carcasses in respect to the mixture of fat and lean. 

''The lambs that were fed grain continuously from birth until 
about ten months old sheared a heavier tieece of either washed 
or unwashed wool than those that did not receive any grain pre- 
vious to the third or fattening period. 

"The wool from the lambs that were fed grain from birth con- 
tained more yolk or grease than that from those that had no grain 
previous to the fattening period. 

"The continuous grain feeding materially influenced the early 
maturity of the lambs. In three of the trials the lambs so fed 
weighed as much per head seven weeks before the conclusion of 
the trials as those that had no grain weighed at the end of the 
trials. In the remaining two trials, the grain-fed lambs equaled 
the average weight of those that did not receive any grain, four 
weeks before. The cost of securing these (equal) weights did 
not materially differ in most of the trials. 

"When the lambs are to be sold at weaning time in July, at 
the age of three or four months, it is profitable to feed grain be- 
fore weaning. 

"When the lambs are to be sold when about seven months old 
in November, it will pay to feed them grain both before and after 
weaning. 

1 Kept. 1896. ' 



Experiments in Fattening Sheep. 511 

" When tlie lambs are fed grain continuously from birth, they 
are fit for the market at any time, so that advantage may be taken 
of any favorable fluctuation that may occur in market prices." 

778. Meat scrap and dried blood. — Wildt^ determined the di- 
gestibility of meat scrap and dried blood in experiments with 
sheep and found them able to digest the following percentages: 

Meat scrap: protein 95, fat 98. 
Dried blood: protein 62, fat 100. 

Eegnard^ obtained excellent results when feeding dried blood 
to lambs in place of milk, supplying about one-half pound daily 
for each 100 pounds live weight. Sheep may gradually be taught 
to eat both the above mentioned feeds. (338-9) 

779. Fish scrap. — According to Kellner, ^ sheep are able to di- 
gest 90 per cent, of the protein in fish scrap and 76 per cent, of 
the crude fat. Fish scrap is somewhat less digestible, therefore, 
than meat scrap. It should only be fed sparingly, especially 
in the beginning, the maximum allowance being from one-half to 
two-thirds of a pound daily per hundred pounds of sheep. (340, 
661) 

780. Influence of protein on the carcass. — At the Wisconsin 
Station,* Craig found that Shropshire-Merino wether lambs, 
when fed on shelled corn, corn silage and corn fodder — a carbo- 
hydrate ration, — averaged, when fat, 112 pounds, and dressed 49 
per cent, of their live weight. Another lot under similar condi- 
tions, fed oats, oil meal, clover silage and clover hay — a protein 
ration, — weighed 117 pounds, and di-essed 51 per cent, of their live 
weight. At the Cornell Station ^ Roberts fed rations varying from 
carbonaceous to highly nitrogenous to grade Shropshire and 
Southdown lambs, which dressed from 45 to 51 per cent, of their 
live weight, equally high returns being secured from the car- 
bonaceous food. 6 



^Landw. Vers. Stat., 1877, p. 20. 

* Pott, Landw. Futtermittel, p. 656. 
s Landw. Vers. Stat., 1877, p. 430. 

* Kept. 1889. 
» Bui. 8. 

«See Keports Storrs Expt. Sta., 1894-96. 



512 Feeds and Feeding. 

II. Wool Production. 

781. Influence of soil and climate. — The effects of geological 
formations and soils generally are quite marked on the character- 
istics of sheep. Brown ^ shows that soil in the vegetation it pro- 
duces, and climate, were prime factors in evolving the various 
breeds of English sheep; the rich low lands with their abundance 
of nutritious grasses producing the heavy-bodied, plethoric Long- 
wools, while the next higher grade of lands with less abundant 
herbage gives the Downs and Middle-wools, leaving to the mount- 
ains and more scant herbage the active, still lighter breeds. 

Coleman 2 states that the peculiar luster of the Lincoln wool 
diminishes when these sheep pass to a less congenial soil; that 
wool in certain districts of Yorkshire brings a higher price than 
that of other localities, the advantage being probably due to a 
favorable combination of soil and climate. He further states 
that limestone soils, while for many reasons peculiarly suited to 
sheep raising, have a tendency to produce a harshness in wool 
which renders it less valuable than that from sheep living on 
clays or gravels. 

"While a dry, porous soil is no doubt directly favorable to the 
general healthfulness of sheep, there seems a further possible 
beneficial result through a finer, more nutritious quality of the 
food plants grown on such soils. Chemical analysis may not be 
able to discover or measure this difference in composition or 
quality, yet its existence seems probable. 

The ability of man to overcome the differences marked by 
nature is frequently surprising. Darwin ^ quotes Lasterye: ''The 
preservation of the (Spanish) Merino race in its utmost purity 
at the Cape of Good Hope, in the marshes of Holland, and under 
the rigorous climate of Sweden, furnishes an additional support 
of this my unalterable principle that fine-wool sheep may be kept 
wherever industrious men and intelligent breeders exist." 

At the Wisconsin Station, ^ Craig found that lambs fed grain 
from an early age grew faster than those getting no grain, and 

I British Sheep Farming. 

* Cattle, Sheep and Pigs of Great Britain. 

8 Animals and Plants under Domestication. 

* Kept. 1896. 



Wool Production. 



513 



further, that the better- fed lambs each sheared about one pound 
more of wool. On scouring the wool from the different lots, the, 
returns of washed wool were practically equal — the higher feed- 
ing had produced more yolk but not more wool. 

Gohren states ^ that the absolute quantity and quality of wool 
produced is less a function of feeding than of breeding. Com- 
pare with Chapter XXVI. 

782. Frequency of shearing. — Another question of interest is 
the effect of removing the wool from sheep several times instead 
of once each year. An experiment was conducted with Eam- 
bouillet sheep, by Weiske and Dehmal, * to study the influence of 
frequent shearing on the yield of wool. Two animals were shorn 
every other month for a year, and two at the beginning and at 
the end of the experiment. The sheep received the same feed 
and treatment throughout the year. The average yield of wool 
was as follows: 



Growth of wool. 



Unwashed 


Pure wool 


Per ct. 


wool. 


fiber. 


yolk. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




1.75 


.69 


61.4 


1.82 


.84 


54.1 


2.40 


1.04 


51.6 


2.18 


.91 


58.2 


2.28 


.96 


57.3 


2.01 


.82 


58.5 


12.44 


5.26 


57.7 


12.80 


4.30 


65.8 



Six times shorn. 
November and December 

January and February 

March and April 

May and June 

July and August 

September and October,... 

Total 

Once shorn 



The sheep shorn six times produced somewhat less unwashed 
wool but about 22 jjer cent, more pure wool fiber than those shorn 
once. The wool from the once- shorn sheep contained more yolk 
than the other. 



1 Futterungslehre, 1872, p. 511. 

2 Jour. f. Landw., 1882. 

83 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

GENERAL CAKE OF SHEEP — FATTENING. 

I. Shepherd and Flock. 

783. Food of the sheep. — The sheep is the plant- scavenger of 
the farm. Through its dainty nibbling of herbage, we might 
suppose its likes were few and dislikes many, yet every plant 
at some period of its growth seems palatable. If sufficient num- 
bers of sheep are kept on one field for any length of time, every- 
thing green is eaten, many species of plants being entirely de- 
stroyed. 

While sheep, like other farm animals, exhibit strong prefer- 
ences for certain food articles, necessity may cause them to subsist 
upon substances far removed from the usual dietary. Low^ re- 
ports that the sheep of the Shetland Islands feed upon seaweed 
during the winter months, knowing by instinct the first ebbing 
of the tide, and that they are fed dried fish when normal foods 
are scarce. 

McDonald 2 writes of Iceland sheep: ' ' The only kindness which 
these animals receive from their keepers in the winter is being fed 
on fish-bones and frozen ofial, when their natural food is buried 
too deep even for their ingenuity and patience." 

While sheep may subsist upon articles such as are mentioned 
above, the organs of mastication and digestion plainly indicate that 
plants in some form constitute their natural food. The cutting 
teeth in the lower jaw of the sheep fit against the cartilaginous 
pad above in such manner that, when feeding, the herbage is torn 
off rather than cut. The faeces of the sheep show the finest 
grinding of any of our farm animals, minute weed seeds being 
generally crushed and destroyed. 

1 The Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Islands. 
* Cattle, Sheep and Peer. 



General Care of Sheep. 515 

784. Mutton breeds and the Merinos compared. — The Merino 
sheep is peculiarly a wool-bearer, and nearly all lines descended 
from the Spanish stock have been selected with that single end in 
view. The story of the Spanish Merino in its home country forms 
one of the most interesting chapters extant in the history of live 
stock. 1 In their pilgrimage from South to Central Spain each 
spring, and their return in the fall, the Spanish flocks make 
annual journeys covering in all about one thousand miles. Only 
the strongest and most rugged animals survive the long, fatiguing 
and perilous marches. The ability to exist in enormous flocks, to 
range over a vast territory, and to subsist upon scant food, are the 
leading of the many remarkable qualities wrought by stern fate 
into the very fiber and constitution of the Merino sheep. 

Almost opj)osite in some respects are the English mutton 
breeds of sheep, which have been reared in small flocks confined 
to limited pastures, the best specimens being saved and nurtured 
by kindly hands with intelligent attention to all their wants. 
They have been sheltered from storms and given roughage and 
grain from barn and stack, whenever the fields were scant of 
herbage or the weather severe. In general, the life of the 
English mutton sheep has been one of plenty almost to surfeit 
and quiet contentment. In this country we cannot hope to attain 
the wonderful success reached by British sheep-owners unless we 
follow closely or improve upon their methods. The rules and 
practices prevalent in this country in handling Merino sheep will 
prove satisfactory with the mutton breeds, and the feeder in the 
very inception of his flock experience should duly consider the 
habits and characteristics of the animals he is handling. 

785. Size of the flock. — The sheep is distinctively a gregarious 
animal. The American Merino of to-day, improved as it is over 
its ancestors, still shows in a marked manner the result of inherit- 
ance by its adaptability to exist in large flocks and thrive under 
ordinary conditions of care and keep. With reasonable over- 
sight, thousands of Merino sheep can be held in single bands 
where the range is ample; and for the period of fattening tens of 
thousands can be successfully fed together, as is now commonly 

* Low's Domestic Animals of the British Islands, Vol. II. 



516 Feeds and Feeding. 

done with range sheep brought to feeding points in the Trans- 
Missouri corn states. 

To give the highest returns the English mutton sheep must be 
kept in small flocks, where each member can receive attention 
when needed from the shepherd. Of the mutton breeds, two 
hundred sheep are probably as many as can be successfully man- 
aged in one flock, and to secure the best returns from so large a 
number as this, one should have experience in their management. 
The novice would better begin with a flock of twenty-five, in- 
creasing the number as experience grows into intelligent, well- 
directed management. 

786. Quarters for the flock. — Above every other animal on the 
farm, the sheep to be profitable must be kept dry as to coat and 
feet; inattention to either of these essentials will result disas- 
trously. With dry quarters sheep will stand a considerable de- 
gree of cold without inconvenience; indeed, their quarters should 
not be as warm as for other farm animals. One thickness of 
closely- matched boards will make the barn or shed where sheep 
are confined sufficiently warm in the Northern states except for 
winter lambs. Ventilation is of great importance and should be 
ample, care being taken to avoid direct drafts. 

The amount of space provided for each sheep will vary with 
the size of the animal. A ewe weighing 100 pounds will require 
about ten square feet of ground space, while one weighing 150 
pounds should have fifteen square feet. A space 40 x 40 feet 
square will therefore accommodate about 160 sheep weighing 100 
pounds each, or 100 weighing 160 pounds, not allowing for feed 
racks. Provide 15 inches running length of feed rack for each 
sheep weighing 100 jiounds, and two feet for those weighing 200 
pounds. 

787. Winter care of the flock. — The flock should be so divided 
into groups that all members of the division are of the same age, 
strength and general characteristics. A flock or division of mut- 
ton sheep, to give the highest returns, should not contain over 
fifty members. Aged breeding ewes should constitute one band, 
the shearing ewes another, the ewe lambs a third, and the wether 
lambs a fourth. These bands should be again divided if there is 



General Care of Sheep. 517 

a marked difference between their strongest and weakest mem- 
bers. The wise flock-master will give attentive care to the divis- 
ion of his flock that each member may have an equal chance with 
its fellows at the feed trough and in enjoying comforts and atten- 
tions from his hand. 

788. Feed for breeding ewes. — There is no better roughage in 
winter for breeding ewes than clover hay, alfalfa hay being its 
counterpart at the West. Then follow corn fodder, cut in the 
fall while the leaves are still green, pea straw, oat straw, bai'ley 
straw, etc. In addition to roughage each breeding ewe should 
receive half a pound of grain daily, consisting of oats, bran, 
peas, or a mixture of these. Oil meal is acceptable, and a table 
spoonful or two may be given to each ewe daily. Corn should 
form a small part, at most, of the ration for breeding ewes, which 
should always be kept in good condition and carry more flesh than 
most American farmers think proper. To winter them on straw, 
or straw with a little hay and no grain, is to perpetuate a flock 
that will gradually but surely degenerate. 

789. Date of lambing. — The lamb dropped in late winter or 
early spring is more valuable than one coming in early pummer. 
Under good management the early-yeaned lamb comes into the 
world with comfortable surroundings and a kind master in at- 
tendance to give attentions conducive to comfort and growth. 
With the coming of spring the young thing is of sufficient size 
and strength to pass out with its dam and make the most of the 
fresh grass and genial sunshine. Where there are poor accom- 
modations or cold quarters, lambs should not be dropped in north- 
ern latitudes earlier than the month of May, and on pasture. The 
ambitious flock-master will not be content with this second-rate 
system, but will provide suitable quarters that his ewes may lamb 
early. 

790. Flushing the ewes. — With the mutton breeds twin lambs 
are very desirable, and, to secure a large percentage of these, 
English flock -masters practice what is called " flushing " the ewes 
at breeding time. The ewes are given an extra supply of nutri- 
tious, highly palatable food for two or three weeks before the 
desired date of breeding that they may be rapidly gaining in flesh 



518 Feeds and Feeding. 

at that time. Well-fed ewes have more twin lambs than those 
poorly nurtured. 

791. At lambing time. — As lambing time approaches the shep- 
herd should take quarters in the sheep barn or close by, and re- 
main in attendance until the season is over. Lambs of mutton 
breeds are often in need of quick, intelligent attention from the 
shepherd as they enter the world. If the young lamb is unable 
to draw milk wittin a few minutes after birth, it should have 
help to secure this first and most important feed. To this end 
the ewe must sometimes be held and the lamb aided, the whole 
being accomplished by that patient skill so characteristic of the 
good shepherd, but so impossible of description. With twins, 
one is usually weaker than the other, and frequently the mother 
cares for only the stronger one; here the shepherd's tact serves 
well in promptly helping the weaker member to its full share of 
food. Lambs can be successfully reared on cow's milk, though 
close attention is necessary in its successful use during the first 
month. Warm cow's milk can be fed from a teapot over the 
spout of which a rubber "cot" with opening in end has been 
placed; or a nursing bottle may be used. At first the lamb should 
be fed fifteen or eighteen times a day; later, half a dozen times. 

The shepherd, rooming close by the lying-in quarters, should 
be in attendance every two or three hours in the night when the 
lambing season is on, to help the weak ones and see that all are 
prospering. With the first fill of milk from the dam the new- 
born lamb becomes comfortable and is usually able thereafter to 
take care of itself. Lambs of the mutton breeds are often weak 
at birth, but under good management gain rapidly in strength. 

For two or three days after parturition the ewe should be sup- 
plied sparingly with dry food of the same character as that given 
before lambing. Succulent feed should be supplied with the de- 
mand for more milk by the young. 

792. Teaching the young lamb to eat. — When about two weeks 
old the lusty young lamb will be found nibbling at the feed trough 
beside its dam, and the shepherd should provide specially for its 
wants in order to early accustom it to take additional food. This 
is accomplished by having an enclosure or room adjoining the 



General Care of Sheep. 519 

ewe-pen into which the lambs find their way, while the mothers 
are prevented from entering because of the limited size of the 
openings, called the '' lamb-creep." In this space place alow, 
flat-bottomed trough, with an obstruction lengthwise across the 
top to prevent the lamb from jumping into it. In this trough 
sprinkle a little meal especially palatable to the lamb, such as 
ground oats, bran, shorts, corn meal, oil meal — one or all, — vary- 
ing the mixture to suit the changing tastes of the young things. 
They will at first take but little of this feed, but soon become 
regular attendants at the trough through habit impelled by hearty 
appetite. The feed in the trough at any time should not be more 
than will be consumed before the next supply is due. If for any 
reason there is an over-supply, it should be removed and the 
trough thoroughly cleaned before the next allowance is placed 
therein. Feed should be fresh and have no smell of the stable 
about it; that left over from time to time can be given to the pigs. 

793. Turning to pasture. — With the springing of the grass, 
ewes and lambs should be turned to pasture for a short time dur- 
ing the warmer part of the day. It is generally best to accom- 
plish the change to pasture gradually and while the grass is short. 
After a few hours spent in the sunshine, nibbling at the grass, 
the ewes and lambs should be returned to shelter, where a full 
feed awaits them. "When the grass has become ample and nutri- 
tious, stable feeding may be dropped for ewes, or both ewes and 
lambs, according to the plan followed. With good pasture, breed- 
ing ewes need no grain; indeed, we may look forward to the 
pasture season as marking the time to '^draw the grain from 
their systems," as it is termed by feeders. 

In some instances pastures are so stimulating to the milk flow 
of ewes that the over-supply of rich milk thereby induced causes 
digestive derangement and sudden death with young lambs. The 
shepherd should watch closely and forestall such trouble by re- 
moving the ewes from the pasture after a few hours grazing each 
day, and giving hay or other dry feeds, thereby shutting off a 
part of the milk flow. 

794. Weaning fambs. — If it is desirable to push the lambs in 
growth beyond the possibilities of the pasture, at a convenient 



520 Feeds and Feeding. 

point let there be a 'Hamb- creep," which is a passage-way made 
of slats or pickets so placed that the lambs can pass through, 
while the ewes are prevented because of their size. In a space 
accessible by way of the creep, place a trough for feeding grain. 
Whenever the lamb passes through the creep it should find some- 
thing in this trough tempting the appetite, — oats, bran, pea meal 
and corn meal constituting the leading articles. Grain never gives 
such large returns as when fed to thrifty young animals, and the 
growing lamb is no exception. Lambs of the mutton breeds, more 
or less helpless at birth, are lusty at four months of age, and will be 
found grazing regularly beside their dams in pasture when not at 
rest or eating grain beyond the lamb-creep. At this age, for 
their own good as well as that of the ewes, weaning time is at 
hand. Let them then be so far separated from their dams that 
neither can hear the bleating of the other. For a few days the 
ewes should be held on short pasture or kept in the yard upon 
dry feed. Their udders should be examined, and if necessary, as 
is often the case with the best mothers, they should be drained of 
milk a few times lest inflammation arise. At weaning time the 
lambs should be put on the best pasture and given a liberal sup- 
ply of grain in addition, in order to mitigate the effects of weaning. 
To this end new clover seeding is especially relished, while young 
second-crop clover is also satisfactory. An especially choice bite 
may always be provided for the lambs at this important time by 
a little forethought on the part of the stockmaH. 

795. Water and salt. — Opinions with regard to the amount of 
water necessary for sheep vary more than with any other domes- 
tic animal. Miller of Canada, who has had large experience with 
English mutton sheep, writes: ^ '' I have noticed that wherever 
sheep are fed so that they will not drink water they are fed in 
nearly the pro]3er manner. In this country, where we have such 
warm summers, it is hard to do that, but the nearer we come to 
it the nearer we are feeding in a perfect way." In countries 
with heavy dews and ample succulent feed in summer, and where 
root crops are largely used in winter, water may possibly be de- 
nied sheep, but under most conditions it is a necessity and should 

1 Wis. Farm Inst. Bui, 7. 



General Care of Sheep. 521 

never be withheld. A sheep should have from one to six quarts 
of water daily, according to feed and weather. 

Sheep require salt, and it should be supplied them at regular 
intervals. In winter it may be given in a trough used only for 
this purpose. In summer, salt may be rendered otherwise use- 
ful by scattering it on the sprouts growing about the stumps and 
brush patches, or over noxious weeds. In consuming salt so 
placed a flock will destroy many harmful plants. 

796. Vermin. — Sheep are subject at all times to attacks of ticks 
and lice. Wherever these animals are kept there should be a drip- 
ping tank ready for use at any time. At shearing time the ticks 
leave the sheep and pass to the lambs. The lambs should then 
be dipped. 

There should be frequent examinations of the flock to note its 
freedom from vermin, and the trouble forestalled by dipping if 
any trouble is apparent. No flock can thrive while its members 
are infected by parasites. 

II. Fattening Sheep and Lanibs. 

797. Mature sheep. — It is generally conceded unwise to feed 
yearlings for the block, since they are shedding teeth and are 
therefore not in condition to give good returns for feed and care. 
Unless prices for wool rule high the stockman cannot afibrd to 
carry wethers past the period when they may be fed off as lambs. 
Culls from the flock can be prepared for the butcher at any time 
by the use of a little extra grain. In the vicinity of cities, 
profitable sales can be made of fat culls offered at times when 
regular feeders have failed to supply the market. 

798. Fat lambs. — The demand for well-fattened lambs steadily 
increases, the tender, juicy meat finding favor among Americans. 
Not only do prices for fat Iambs rule high as compared with 
mature sheep and farm animals generally, but there are other ad- 
vantages in favor of feeding off lambs before they reach maturity. 
A given weight of feed goes further with lambs than with mature 
sheep; the money invested is sooner turned, and there is less risk 
from death and accident. Thus everything tends toward hurry- 
ing lambs to market as rapidly as they can be fattened and as 
early as they can be disposed of to secure the highest prices. 



522 Feeds and Feeding. 

799. Quarters for fattening. — Fattening slieep should be pro- 
tected from wet coats and feet at all times. Ideal quarters in the 
Northern states are a dry, littered yard, with a sunny exposure, 
provided with a well-bedded, comfortable shed extending along 
the windward side to break the cold winds and driving storms. In 
such quarters the air is bracing, the sunshine invigorating, and, 
covered with a heavy coat and filled with rich grain, the animals 
are warm and comfortable, and comfort is essential to the highest 
gains. If confined in barns warm enough for dairy cows, sheep 
sweat badly in winter. Stone basements are not satisfactory 
places for fattening sheep; if used, ample ventilation must be 
provided. Damp walls are a sure indication of lack of ventila- 
tion and impending trouble. 

800. Feed racks. — Grain and roughage should be fed sepa- 
rately. Eacks for roughage in the yards should be large, so that 
a considerable quantity of hay may be deposited in them, thus 
making that part of the feeding simple. If sheep are fed in closed 
quarters, the hay should be supplied daily, since they dislike feed 
that has been ^' blown upon," as shepherds say. Grain troughs 
should have a wide, flat bottom, thus forcing the sheep to con- 
sume the grain slowly, rather than bolt it by mouthfuls. Not 
less than fifteen inches of linear trough space should be provided 
for each animal fed. There is no need of incurring heavy ex- 
pense in arranging yards, sheds, racks and troughs unless the 
improvements are to be permanent. 

801. Corn. — Corn is the best single grain for lambs, causing 
them to put on fat rapidly and not forcing growth, as is the case 
with some other concentrates. It is shown elsewhere (757) that 
about 500 pounds of corn and 400 pounds of clover hay may be 
regarded as the standard allowance for producing 100 pounds of 
gain with lambs where all conditions are favorable. From this 
data the feeder can readily calculate the cost and possible profits 
of fattening lambs. 

802. Wheat. — Trials show that wheat is not as valuable as corn 
for fattening sheep, being worth about ten per cent. less. At the 
Colorado Station, Cooke observed that lambs fed on wheat grew 
in frame and muscle rather than fattened. This conclusion is rea- 
sonable judging from the composition and character of this grain. 



General Care of Sheep. 523 

803. Wheat screenings.— Enormous quantities of broken and 
shrunken wheat are annually turned out by the elevators and 
mills of the Northwest. There are also large quantities of pigeon- 
grass seed, wild buckwheat, etc., screened from grain. All these, 
usually in combination, are sold at low rates. Eeports of feeding 
trials show these substances of value in the feed lot, and their 
use should be carefully considered in localities where they can be 
obtained without the payment of heavy freight bills. If possible, 
corn should be mixed with screenings, as these no doubt, like 
wheat, tend to produce growth as well as to fatten. 

804. Oats. — Where oats are low in price they may be used 
for sheep feeding and will produce excellent mutton. Like wheat, 
oats conduce to growth in lambs rather than immediate fattening; 
hence it is best to mix corn with them for fattening lambs when 
possible. 

805. Bran. — Experiments show that bran is not especially 
desirable for fattening sheep, a large quantity being required for 
a given gain. Like wheat and oats, bran conduces to growth 
rather than fattening; its bulky character is also against its use 
for this purpose, though a limited quantity may be useful. It is 
better in most cases to supply the sheep with concentrated food 
like corn, and cheaper roughage like clover hay, to furnish the 
bulk required in feed during fattening. 

806. Grinding grain. — Of all farm animals the sheep is best 
able to do its own grinding, and, except in rare cases, whole grain 
only should be furnished. The common saying of feeders, that 
a sheep which cannot grind its own grain is not worth feeding, is 
a truthful one. Valuable breeding sheep with poor teeth may 
be perpetuated in usefulness by being fed ground grain. At the 
Colorado Station, Cooke, in feeding Western sheep on wheat, ob- 
served that much of the grain passed through the animals un- 
broken. This experience is certainly unusual, but shows what 
may occasionally happen. 

807. Roughage. — The Eastern stockman should provide clover 
hay in abundance for his flock, both red and alsike varieties 
proving satisfactory. So long as there is an ample supply of 
good clover hay, sheep show little desire for other varieties of 



524 Feeds and Feeding. 

forage. The clover should be cut early in order to secure the 
leaves and heads, which are the parts desired. 

In the irrigated regions of the West alfalfa furnishes a hay su- 
perior even to red clover in palatability and the nutriment which 
it carries. Alfalfa hay of good quality not only answers for 
roughage, but because of its abundant nutriment serves as a par- 
tial substitute for grain, thus materially reducing the cost of 
feeding and fattening. 

Next in value to hay from the legumes come the dry leaves of the 
corn plant. For sheep feeding, corn should be cut early and cured 
in well-made shocks. It can be fed uncut, or if more convenient 
may be run through the feed- cutter, though cutting will not induce 
sheep to eat any of the coarser parts, as is the case with cattle. 

808. Dipping. — Before sheep are admitted to the fattening pens 
they should be carefully examined by an experienced shepherd, 
and if any evidence of skin disease or vermin is found the flock 
should be dipped in the most thorough manner. At the West, 
scab stands an ever-present menace to profitable fattening. In 
the East, lice and ticks infest the flocks of farmers and sheep- 
raisers who are not especially careful in flock management. 
To attempt to fatten sheep afflicted with any of these pests is 
to court loss and possibly disaster. Sheep which are seemingly 
free from ticks will, if infested by them, show irritability and 
restlessness as soon as fattening begins. 

809. Length of feeding period and gains. — The feeding period 
with sheep and lambs should last from twelve to fifteen weeks, 
according to the condition of the sheep in the beginning and the 
rapidity with which they gain. The tables in the preceding 
chapter show that lambs, when gaining normally, increase in 
weight at least a quarter of a pound per day. For a feeding 
period of 100 days the gains should therefore reach from 25 to 30 
j)ounds per head. This weight, mostly fat, added to the carcass 
of a lamb weighing originally 80 to 100 pounds, brings it to the 
size desired by the market. 

810. Feed consumed. — As a result of carefully conducted ex- 
periments with sheep of different breeds, Lawes and Gilbert ^ 

^ Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. II. 



General Care of Sheep. 525 

write as follows concerning the consumption of food by sheep 
while being fattened: 

''Sheep of different breeds consume quantities of food in pro- 
portion to their respective weights when at an equal age^ stage 
of feeding, etc. ; that is to say, three sheep weighing 100 pounds 
each will consume the same quantity of food as two sheep of 150 
pounds each. 

''Sheep on good fattening food, such as oil cake or corn, with 
chaff and roots, will consume weekly about 4.75 pounds of oil 
cake, 4.75 pounds of hay, and about 70 pounds of roots, for every 
100 pounds of their live weight. 

"When fed as above, they will consume every week about one- 
seventh of their own weight of the dry substance of food; that is, 
after deducting the moisture it contains." 

811. Rate of increase. — Lawes and Gilbert drew the following 
conclusions from the same experiments concerning the rate of 
increase: 

' ' Sheep well fed and under cover will increase about two per 
cent, per week upon their weight; that is to say, 100 pounds live 
weight will increase from 1.75 pounds to 2 pounds per week. 

"To increase 100 pounds in live weight, sheep will consume 
about 225 pounds of oil cake or corn, 225 pounds of hay -chaff, 
and from 3,000 to 3,750 pounds of roots. 

"The increase of a fattening sheep is at the rate of about one 
pound live weight to eight or nine pounds of the dry substance of 
the food consumed." 

812. Cost of gain. — The numerous trials reported elsewhere 
giving the quantities of feed required for 100 pounds of gain will 
enable the feeder to calculate very closely what it will cost to pro- 
duce 100 pounds of gain with fattening lambs. For instance, if 
it requires 500 pounds of corn and 400 of clover hay for 100 
pounds of gain, and corn is worth 28 cents a bushel (50 cents 
per 100 pounds) and hay $8 per ton (40 cents per 100 pounds), 
the cost will be as follows: 

500 pounds of corn at 50 cents $2 50 

400 pounds of hay at 40 cents 160 

Cost of 100 pounds gain, live weight $4 10 



526 Feeds and Feeding. 

This may be considered as the minimum cost of feed for pro- 
ducing 100 pounds of gain with lambs at the price named for 
corn and clover hay. Often the feed required will for various 
causes exceed the amount here stated; again, sheep require more 
feed for a given gain than lambs. The cost with other combina- 
tions of feed may easily be worked out in the same manner from 
data in the tables. Comparing the cost of gains made by lambs 
and steers, it will be found that the former give the best returns 
for the feed supplied. (566, 882) Sheep will probably cost from 
twenty-five to thirty per cent, more for a given gain than lambs. 

813. Hints on sheep feeding. — Sheep feeders do not begin 
operations at an early hour in winter, preferring not to disturb 
their animals until the day breaks. Usually grain is first given, 
followed by hay and water. The trough in which grain is fed 
should be kept clean at all times, and there should be ample room, 
that each animal may get its share of grain. Nowhere does the 
skill of the feeder show more plainly than in getting sheep to full 
grain feed without a member of the flock getting ''off feed." 
Western sheep may not be able to take over one-tenth of a pound 
of grain per day at first. If so, two months or ten weeks may be 
required in getting the flock to full feed. English mutton sheep 
take to grain more readily, and in some cases no more than three 
or four weeks need intervene between starting and full feeding. 
In no case should this operation be hurried, for it means waste of 
feed and the permanent injury if not loss of some of the animals. 

814. Regularity and quiet. — While regularity and quiet are of 
importance at all times in the management of stock, they are 
paramount in successfully handling fattening sheep. Sheep, like 
other animals, are creatures of habit and should always be 
handled by the same attendant, who should move among them 
quietly, giving notice of his approach by speaking to his flock, 
and closing doors and gates gently. Dogs and strangers should 
be kept from the feeding pens at all times if possible. 

815. Maintenance food for breeding ewes in winter. — At the 
Wisconsin Station, i Craig conducted trials to ascertain the amount 
of food required to maintain pregnant ewes in good condition in 

1 Rept. 1893. 



General Care of Sheep. 



527 



winter. The ewes were Shropshires and Shropshire-Merino crosses 
ranging from 148 to 177 pounds each in weight at the beginning 
of the trial. Each lot was fed separately and received one-half 
pound of oats or bran per head daily. In addition to this, rough- 
age was supplied as shown in the table. The figures given below 
are calculated for 100 ewes averaging about 160 pounds each. 

Feed required in winter to maintain 100 pregnant breeding ewes, 
weighing from lJf8 to 177 pounds each — Wisconsin Station. 



Roughage fed. 


Coarse 
forage. 


Sugar beets. 


Oats or 
bran. 


Amount 
of refuse. 


Increase 

ill live wt. 

per head, 

8 weeks. 


Corn fodder (cut) 
Oat straw 


Lbs. 

175 
110 
150 

210 
150 
200 

220 
330 
260 


Lbs. 

310 
310 
310 

Corn silage. 

250 
240 

280 

Hay. 

150 
150 
150 


Lbs. 

50 
50 
50 

50 
50 
50 

50 
50 
50 


Per cent. 

20 
22 
6.2 

33 
35 
16 

.6 


Lbs. 

10.6 
1 


Blue-grass hay.... 

Oat hay f uncut).. 

Oat hay (cut) 

Alsike "clover hay 

Corn silage 


4.8 

19.1 
4.7 
19. 

1 6 


Sugar beets 


7. 


Clover silage 


12.9 


7.3 



By the above we note that to maintain a flock of 100 breeding 
ewes weighing about 16,000 pounds, there are required daily 50 
pounds of oats or bran, 175 pounds of corn fodder and 310 pounds 
of sugar beets. The stockman can easily calculate the cost of 
this ration. Under Western conditions the cost of maintaining 
a flock of 100 large ewes will be about $1 per day, or one cent 
per head when kept on corn fodder, sugar beets and oats. Re- 
viewing these findings, Craig reports that alsike clover hay was 
considered one of the best feeds in the list, being eaten with rel- 
ish and comparatively small waste. Cut (chaffed) oat hay was 
found unsatisfactory, as the pieces gathered in the wool about the 
necks of the sheep, and it was not so well eaten. Corn silage 
was found desirable unless it contained much corn, which is in- 
jurious to breeding ewes. 



528 



Feed8 and Feeding. 



816. Rations for fattening lambs. — At various Stations different 
feeding stuffs and combinations of feeds have been used with 
lambs for fattening purposes. Examples are here presented to 
aid the feeder in forming satisfactory combinations of grain and 
roughage and to guide in determining the quantities required. 
In all cases the rations are calculated for 100 head. The weight 
of the lambs is given in each example. 



Michigan Experiment Station. ^ 

Corn and clover hay. Lbs. 

Av. wt. of lambs fed 82 

Daily gain 31 

Shelled com 149 

Clover hay 104 



Wisconsin Experiment Station. ^ 

Corn and corn fodder. Lbs, 

Av. wt. of lambs fed 76 

Daily gain 27 

Shelled corn 154 

Corn fodder 188 



Michigan Experiment Station. ^ Michigan Experiment Station. 

Corn, bran and clover hay. 



Corn, oil meal and clover hay. 
Lbs. 

Av. wt. of lambs fed 83 

Daily gain 34 

Corn 132 

Oil meal 33 

Clover hay 110 

Michigan Experiment Station. ' 
Corn, wheat and clover hay. Lbs. 



Av. wt. of lambs fed. 
Daily gain 



Lbs. 
80 
.25 



Shelled corn 81 

Bran 81 

Clover hay 107 

Wisconsin Experiment Station. ^ 
Corn, oats and hay. Lbs. 



Av. wt. of lambs fed. 
Daily gain 



85 



.25 



Av. wt. of lambs fed. 
Daily gain 



89 



.38 



Shelled corn 64 

Wheat 64 

Clover hay 129 

Wisconsin Experiment Station. ^ 

Corn, peas and corn fodder. Lbs. 

Av. wt. of lambs fed 76 

Daily gain 32 

Shelled corn 87 

Peas 87 

Corn fodder 183 



Shelled corn 94 

Oats 94 

Hay 95 

Michigan Experiment Station. * 

Oafs, hay and roots. Lbs. 

Av. wt. of lambs fed 83 

Daily gain 31 

Oats 164 

Clover hay 140 

Ruta-bagas 100 



1 Bui. 113. 



Kept. 1896. 



8 Bui. 128. 



* Bui. 107. 



General Care of Sheep. 529 

Minnesota Uxperiment Station. ^ Texas Experiment Station. 2 

Wheat screenings and timothy hay. Cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed 

Lbs. hulls. Lbs. 

Av. wt. of lambs fed 74 Av. wt. of lambs fed 62 

Daily gain 29 Daily gain 28 

Wheat screenings 211 Cotton-seed meal 97 

Timothy hay 72 Cotton-seed hulls 97 

Minnesota Experiment Station. * Colorado Eocperiment Station. ' 

Barley, oil m,eal and timothy hay. Cracked com and alfalfa hay. 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Av. wt. of lambs fed 76 Av. wt. of lambs fed 89 

Daily gain 33 Daily gain 29 

Barley 189 Alfalfa hay 290 

Oil meal 19 Corn 67 

Timothy hay 72 

III. Winter or " Christmas Lamh^^ Baising. 

817. Requirements of the market. — In our large cities there is 
a demand for " Christmas " or winter lambs. There are several 
obstacles to be met in raising lambs satisfactory for this market, 
the most difficult of which is breeding the ewes at the right 
season, and the proper nmture of the young lambs to develop 
carcasses which will meet the fastidious requirements of the 
gourmand. A leader in this high-art branch of sheep farming 
is Mr. J. S. Woodward, of Lockport, N. Y., who has been in the 
business twenty-five years. The facts given below are condensed 
from an essay by Mr. Woodward in the Wisconsin Farmers' In- 
stitute Bulletin No. 7. 

"Christmas lambs," as they are frequently called, should 
present a well-developed leg of mutton with plenty of lean meat, 
tender and juicy, with a good thick caul to spread over the car- 
cass when on exhibition. A dressed lamb weighing twenty-five 
pounds, fulfilling the requirements, is superior to one weighing 
twice that which is lean and bony. 

818. Mating. — Mr. Woodward prefers grade Merinos not less 
than two years old coming three, because they are the best 
mothers. He mates short-legged, heavy-bodied, stocky ewea 

1 Bui. 31. 2 Bui. 10. 8 Bui. 32. 

34 



530 Feeds and Feeding. 

with a Dorset ram, preferring that breed because the lambs are 
often doubles, are hardy and fatten quickly. Some breeders pre- 
fer Hampshires for sires, because of their large, growthy lambs. 
One of the greatest difSculties in breeding Christmas lambs 
is to have them dropped sufficiently early to be large enough for 
sale when the market demands them. The breed and condi- 
tion of the ewe has much to do in this matter. The ram is 
turned with the ewes about the first of June. It has been found 
that keeping the ewes shut up and away from most of their food 
for a few days, and giving them extra food before turning in 
the rams, conduces to breeding. Even with favorable conditions 
all ewes will not breed at the desired time, and to secure 400 
lambs about 500 ewes are necessary. The ewes which fail to 
breed are sold early, and those breeding late give lambs useful 
for later sales. Ewes which are successful breeders are kept as 
long as possible, since it is found that one lambing in November 
is more likely to breed at the right time the following year than 
one lambing in April or May. 

819. Care and feed of ewes. — The barns in which the ewes are 
kept are such as permit maintaining an average temperature as 
nearly 50 deg. Fahr. as possible in winter, the mercury never 
going below 40 degrees. The folds or pens in this barn have 320 
square feet space for each 20 ewes, in addition to which is an 
annex 6x18 feet adjoining each pen, into which the lambs only 
can go for extra food. The ewes are shorn in January, the object 
being to keep them cooler and allow more space. Mr. Woodward 
claims further that shorn ewes give more milk. For roughage 
the ewes are fed clover hay, corn silage, mangels and some flat 
turnips; the concentrates consist of linseed meal, bran and a 
little corn meal. The object is to get the ewe fat, and Mr. Wood- 
ward does not care how fat she is, provided the end is reached 
with such foods as are described above. In warm quarters suc- 
culent feed may be given with safety. 

820. Feeding the lambs. — The lambs get their additional food 
in the side pens, beginning to eat when two weeks old. At first 
unmixed new-process linseed meal is used. The troughs are 
cleaned every morning and a fresh supply of meal put in, giving 



General Care of Sheep. 631 

all the lambs will eat. "WTien a few weeks old cracked com is 
added to the ration, and later barley and a few oats. Some clover 
hay, cut when in full bloom and kept in a special mow, serves 
for roughage. Every effort is made to induce the young things 
to not only eat, but to eat a large quantity, and keep eating. 
Weak lambs are fed new milk from a teapot with a rubber cot, hav- 
ing a hole punctured in the end of it, placed on the spout. Ewes 
bereft of their lambs through sale are given a lamb from twins 
to raise. To force the ewe to own a lamb, a movable partition 
is used to separate her and the lamb from the flock, and the lamb 
is helped to suck twenty times a day until owned by its foster- 
mother. Water weakly tinctured with the essence of pepper- 
mint sprinkled over the nose of the ewe and over the lamb 
frequently helps to effect an adoption. Through this system of 
forcing the best lambs weigh from 40 to 47 pounds alive at six 
weeks, and as much as 34 pounds dressed. These lambs are 
dressed in a special manner, the carcass being covered with white 
muslin and sewed up in burlap. To be profitable they should 
bring five dollars or more per head. This specialty in sheep 
husbandry can only be profitably carried on by experts who have 
gained experience through XJatieut, well-directed effort and who 
have markets not too far distant that will pay the high prices 
such products must command. 

rV". Fattening Plains Sheep. 

821. Fattening in the corn belt. — A new industry has sprung up 
in the West within the last decade — that of fattening ''Plains" 
sheep in the corn-growing centers. In the winter of 1889 and 
1890,^ 625,000 head of plains sheep were fattened in the state of 
Nebraska alone, the great corn crop of that year forming the basis 
of operations. Briefly, the system is as follows: During the sum- 
mer, Plains sheep purchased in New Mexico, Colorado, or other 
Western ranges, are gradually moved eastward, grazing as they 
go. Often they are dipped en route to destroy or make sure there 
is no scab, the bane of the feeder under this system. By the time 
the corn is ripe the sheep have reached some point where it is for 

^ Special Report on the Sheep Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., pp. 845-94. 



532 Feeds and Feeding. 

sale in vast quantities and at a low price. A corral or enclosnre 
is made of pickets, and into tliis the sheep are driven, to remain 
until fattened. Sometimes there are sheds for shelter, usually 
not. Often 20,000 to 30,000, divided into a few bunches, are fed 
at a single point. Wild hay is unloaded against the picket fence, 
through which the sheep feed. The only labor in handling the 
hay after unloading is for an attendant to keep it moved up close 
to the fence. From one and a half to two bushels of corn fed in 
troughs are required per day for 100 head of sheep. To this is 
usually added a few pounds of oil meal. The feeding continues 
about 100 days, the sheep gaining on an average about 15 pounds 
per head during that time. The profit comes mainly from in- 
creasing the original value of the sheep. The industry is an ir- 
regular and uncertain one. If scab breaks out, as it is liable to 
do, there is often a heavy loss to the feeder. Again, the profit 
depends upon the price of corn, wZiich varies greatly from year 
to year and cannot be foretold much in advance of the time for 
feeding. Large numbers of Montana sheep are fed in much the 
same manner in Minnesota on the screenings from mills and 
elevators. This feed is proving excellent for the purpose. Be- 
cause of bits of straw and chaff in the screenings fattening sheep 
do not surfeit so easily on screenings as on corn, and they may 
even be fed without giving any hay in addition. 

822. Cooke's report — Fattening on alfalfa hay and grain. — In 
Bulletin 32 of the Colorado Station, Cooke gathers a large 
amount of information concerning fattening Western sheep in 
Colorado on grain and alfalfa hay grown by irrigation. Accord- 
ing to this author more than 117,000 sheep and lambs fed in 
Colorado were shipped to the Chicago market during the season 
of 1895. It is estimated these sheep consumed 136,000 bushels- 
of wheat, 95,000 bushels of corn, 840 tons of other grain, and 
more than 27,000 tons of alfalfa hay. The sheep and lambs used 
were Colorado-grown or from New Mexico or Idaho. New 
Mexico and Colorado sheep are usually driven to the places 
where fed. The location for feeding is selected because of the 
abundance of alfalfa hay, together with an available supply of 
grain. A summary of the system from the bulletin is as follows: 



General Care of Sheep. 533 

" In feeding southern (New Mexico) lambs they are put on 
hay alone from one to three weeks and then grain feeding begins. 
In feeding sheep on a large scale, the grain is fed in a separate 
corral. The sheep are kept in bunches of about 400. The grain 
is put in feed troughs, the gates are opened, and they are allowed 
about ten minutes to eat the grain; then they are driven back 
and the next bunch brought in. By this method all of the sheep 
have a chance to get some grain, and even the greediest sheep 
cannot get very much. 

'' The first grain fed is merely sprinkled in the trough to get 
the sheep used to it. The principal skill in feeding sheep is to 
increase the grain so gradually that the sheep will eat it greedily 
all the time. Most feeders use pails and reckon feed by the 
number of bucketfuls fed per day. A bucketful of 20 pounds to 
400 sheep twice a day is one-tenth of a pound per day, and this is 
as much of an increase as it is considered safe to make at any one 
time, and it is customary to increase only one-half of this. 

''Lambs put in the pens in November will receive their first 
grain at the beginning of December, and for the first week will 
get less than one-tenth of a pound per day per head; that is, the 
feeder will use a week in getting them up from nothing to one-tenth 
of a pound. The rest of the month to the first of January they 
will not get over one-fourth pound. Some hold through the 
whole month of January on one-fourth pound, while some gradu- 
ally increase through the month to one-half pound. 

''This is all considered prei^aratory, and real grain feeding 
begins the first of February. Feeders vary in the speed with 
which they increase the grain; but by the first of March few will 
be feeding less than one pound, and the sheep are kept on full 
feed from then until they go on the market. If nothing but 
wheat is fed, it is hard to get the sheep to eat over a pound per 
head per day. . . . The hay fed to sheep in Colorado is all 
alfalfa. It is fed in racks that are about 14 feet wide. These 
racks are simply low fences Inclosing a space of 14 feet wide and 
any desired length. The fences are made of three 8-inch boards 
running lengthwise of the racks, the bottom one resting on the 
ground, the others above with 8-inch spaces, making a fence 40 



534 Feeds and Feeding. 

inches high. The hay is pitched into the middle by the wagon- 
load and pushed up to the sides two or three times per day as fast 
as the sheep need it. There should be rack enough so that most 
of the sheep can eat at the same time. This will require about one 
foot per head for lambs and 15 inches per head for older sheep. 
. . . A large part of the feeding yards in Colorado are located 
on the banks of streams, or near enough to rivers so that ditches 
can be run through the yards and the surplus water returned to 
the river. . . . During the coldest winter, sheep will drink 
only a quart of water per head, but in warm weather 5 to 6 
quarts is an ordinary amount. , . . Opinions differ as to the 
amount of salt required in fattening sheep. The most common 
practice is to keep lumps of rock salt where the sheep can lick 
them. . . , Southern lambs are so light of fleece that they 
never need shearing in the fall. But if they are to be fed until 
the last of May they get very fat, and their thick fleece at that 
time makes them suffer from the heat. ... If sheared six 
weeks before shipping they will grow enough more rapidly to 
make up the weight of the wool, shrink less in shipping and 
pack quite a number more in the car, lessening the freight 
charges per head. . . . With Western sheep the case is quite 
different; they are larger, the fleece is longer and grows earlier. 
They have to be sheared if they are to be fed late in the spring. 
. . . This fall shearing applies only to good, well-grown 
lambs. Wethers and ewes do not need shearing if they are to be 
marketed before April 15. If they are to be held until late in 
May they had better be sheai'ed in the spring rather than in the 
fcilL" (308, 770-71) 



CHAPTEE XXXII. 



INVESTIGATIONS WITH SWINE. 



823. Period of gestation. — According to Coburn, ^ young sows 
carry their pigs from 100 to 106 days; old sows from 112 to 115 
days. 

Spencer, ■■^ writing of English pigs, says: "The variations in 
the time which a sow will carry her pigs are very slight, and these 
are pretty well regulated by the age and condition of the sow; 
thus, old and weakly sows and yelts (young sows) will most fre- 
quently bring forth a day or two before the expiration of the six- 
teen weeks. Sows in fair condition will generally farrow on the 
one hundred and twelfth day, while strong and vigorous sows will 
frequently go a few days over time." 

824. Weight of pigs at farrowing time. — A number of observa- 
tions have been made by the writer at the Wisconsin Station ^ in 
relation to the weight of pigs at farrowing. The findings with 
seven sows are reported below: 

Weights of pigs in order farrowed — Wisconsin Station. 



Breed. 


No, 1 


No. 2 


No. 8 


No. 4 


No. 5 


No. 6 


No. 7 


No. 8 


No. 9 


No. 10 


Total, 


Pure-bred Berk- 


Lbs. 

2.1 

2.7 
2.1 
2.5 
2.0 
2.1 
*2.6 


Lbs. 
1.9 

2.4 

2.7 

2.3 

1.9 

2.2 

2.7 


Lbs. 
2.2 

2.3 

2.5 

2.3 

2.2 

2.2 

2.7 


Lbs. 
2.0 

2.9 

2.8 
2.4 
2.1 
2.4 
2.8 


Lbs. 
*1.5 

2.0 

3.0 

2.0 

2.1 

2.2 

2.4 


Lbs. 
1.8 

2.7 

3.0 

1.9 

2.3 

2.4 

2.4 


Lbs. 
1.9 

3.1 

2.6 


Lbs. 
♦1.9 

2.1 


Lbs. 
2.6 

2.3 


Lbs. 
*1.3 


Lbs. 
19 2 


Cross-bred Pol.- 
Chester White 

Piire-bred Pol.- 
China 


22.5 
18.7 


Pure-bred Pol.- 
China 








13,4 


Pure-bred Pol.- 
China 










12.6 


Cross-bred Pol.- 
Chester White 










13,5 


Pure-bred Pol.- 
China 










15,6 















* Farrowed dead. 

The sows under study ranged in age from one to four years and 
in weight from 240 to .577 pounds before farrowing. As the pigs 



* Swine Husbandry, 

' "Pigs, Breeds and Management." 



s Rept. 1897. 



536 



Feeds and Feeding. 



were farrowed tliey were marked by the attendant in order to ob- 
serve any differences in weight or other conditions. 

It will be seen that the number of pigs in the several litters 
ranged from 6 to 10 and the weight of the litters from 13.5 to 22.5 
pounds each. The pigs when farrowed weighed from 1.3 to 2.6 
pounds each. ' 

Frequently in a litter of pigs there is one member much weaker 
than the others, and this is styled the ''runt" or ''teatman." It 
is sometimes spoken of as the last pig farrowed, this occurrence 
seeming in some unknown way to mark its inferiority. As the 
table shows, the last pig farrowed was not necessarily lighter in 
weight than the others, and the attendant observed no weakness 
or other mark indicating its inferiority. 

825. Milk yielded by the sow. — So far as known to the writer 
there is no reference in agricultural literature to the quantity 
of milk yielded by the sow. At the Wisconsin Station, ^ Woll 
and the writer ascertained the milk yield of four sows whose age, 
weight, etc., are given in the following table: 

Data concerning a^e, feed, etc., of sows — Wisconsin Station. 



No. 


Age. 


Date of 
farrow- 
ing. 


Weight 
after 

farrow- 
ing. 


No. 

of 
pigs. 


Feed consumed daily by sows. 


of 
sow. 


Date. 


Mid- 
dlings 


Corn 
meal. 


Skim 
milli. 


1 

2 

3 
4 


Yr, 

2 

2 

1 
1 


April 1 

April 1 

April 10 
May 1 


Lbs. 
438 

456 

220 

286 


7 
6 

6 

8 


April 2-^5 
April 19-21 
May 5-8 

April 10-12 
June 1-3 
June 18-20 

May30-June2 
June 17-19 

June 2-4 


Lbs. 

4 

4 
4 

1.5 
3.5 
4 

4 

4.5 

4 


Lbs. 

4 
4 
4 

1.5 
3.5 
4 

4 
4.5 

4 


Lbs. 

8 
8 
8 

6 
14 
10 

16 
18 

16 



The litter of pigs was confined in a pen separate from the 
sow during three-day periods. At intervals of two hours by day, 
and from four to five by night, the attendant would weigh the pigs 



Rept. 1897. 



Investigations with Swine. 



637 



together in a basket and immediately place them with the dam. 
The pigs soon drained the udders of the dam, and directly this 
was accomplished they were gathered into the basket and once 
more weighed. The difference between the first and second 
weights of the pigs was credited as milk yielded by the dam. 
The sows used were pure-bred Poland-Chinas with the exception 
of 'No. 4, which was a cross-bred Poland-China Chester White. 

826. Quantity of milk yielded. — As before stated, the yield of 
milk by each sow was determined for periods of three days, the 
first observation occurring shortly after farrowing. Subsequent 
determinations were at intervals of about two weeks. The weights 
of milk yielded by the several sows are given in the following 
table: 

Milk yielded daily by four sows, in pounds, avoirdupois — Wisconsin 

Station. 





Sow No. 1,6 pigs 


Sow No. 2, 6 pigs 


Sow No. 3, 7 pigs 


Sow No. 4, 8 pigs 


Date. 


■a 


-a 
a 


i 

CO 


0) 
bo 

f 

S 
> 
< 


>> 


•a 

a 


CO 


2 

o 
> 

< 


•d 


03 

-a 
•a 

c 


-d 

■s 

CO 


1) 

Si 

> 

< 


c3 

■a 

03 


c3 

-d 

•d 

a 


>> 
•d 

"S 

CO 


bo 

> 
< 


April 2hI 


3.2 


3.3 


3.7 


3.4 


























Af)ril 10-12 


3.4 


3.7 


4.4 


8.8 


















April 19-21 .. . 


7.7 


8.7 


8.4 


8.3 


















April 26-28 










4.3 


4.6 


5..3 


4.7 










April 27-29 










4.6 


4.7 


6.3 


4.9 










May 3-5 


















3.5 


4.1 


5.1 


4 ? 


May 5-7 


6.1 


6.9 


5.4 


5.8 




















May 13-15 










7.8 


7.6 


7.7 


7.7 










May 14-16 










5.1 


6.0 


4.8 


5.0 










May 20-22 


















7.2 


7.1 


7.2 


7 ?. 


May 30-June 1 . . 


















7.3 


7.2 


6.8 


7,1 




May31-June2 










5.3 


5.4 


5.1 


5.3 










June 6-8 


















7.2 


7.5 


7.3 


7 3 


June 16-18 


















2.3 


2.0 


1.9 


2.1 




June 17-19 










1.6 


1.2 


1.2 


1.3 










June 23-25 


















3.6 


3.2 


3.2 


3 3 


Averages.. 









5.8 










4.1 








5.4 


5.5 































The table shows that the average daily milk yield ranged from 
4.1 pounds with sow No. 2 to 5.8 pounds with sow No. 1. The 
highest yield of milk on any one day was 8.7 pounds by sow 
No. 1, twenty days after farrowing. (739) 

827. Composition of sow's milk. — During the experiment sam- 
ples of the sows' milk were obtained and subjected to chemical 
analysis. Great difficulty was experienced in securing the sam- 
ples, the sows being quite unwilling to allow any milk to be drawn 



538 



Feeds and Feeding. 



by the attendant. After considerable experimenting it was found 
that the best way to obtain a sample was to allow the pigs to partly 
empty the udder, when one was gently pushed aside by the at- 
tendant, who quickly drew what milk he could before the dam 
was aware of the operation. Even after the attendant had be- 
come familiar with the difficulties and learned the best method 
of proceeding, only about 30 cc, or one fluid ounce of milk, 
could be obtained as the result of half a dozen efforts. From the 
four sows nine samples of milk were secured, which were analyzed 
with the results given below: 





Composition of sort's milk — 


- Wisconsin 


Stat 


ion. 












2 
o 


'cS 


d 

a 

a 

d 
-d 

a 

eS 

C 

% 
O 


to 


< 


s 

'o 

p< 
cc 



a 
■ji 

■d 
*^ 



£» 


-d 

u 

a 


Microscoiv 
ic exami- 
nation. 


p. 

a 

eg 


o^a 


to 

4, M 

^0 = 


1 


April 1. 
April 12. 
April 21. 
May6.... 
June 2... 
Junes... 
June 4... 


No.l 

No. 2 
No.l 
No.l 
No. 3 
No. 2 
No. 4 
No. 3 
No. 2 


2.5.09 
18.40 
20.27 
17.96 
17.12 
20.46 
20.. 54 
18.22 
18.76 


16.10 

8.66 
8.32 
7.20 
3.89 
8.53 
8.02 
6.67 
7.09 


6.05 
5.11 
5.95 
5.3:3 

6.oa 

6.12 
5.77 
6.67 

7.28 


2.94 
4 63 




8.99 
9.74 
11.95 
10.76 
13.23 
11.93 
12..52 
10.87 
11.67 


3.40 
3.83 
8.27 
5.80 
7.10 
5.27 
7,33 
3.07 
1.33 






2 




787 
1.379 


110 


3 


5.14 

4.48 
5.82 
4.68 
5.96 
4.08 
3.07 


.86 
.95 
l.,S2 
1.13 
.79 
1.12 
1.32 




60 


4 






5 
6 

7 
8 


1.0454 
1.0*58 
1.0396 
I.O.V1O 
1.0388 


98:3 
2,295 
1 ,.516 
1,960 
2,536 


40 
.37 

.5:5 


9 




2K 








Averag 
Averag 
Averag 


e all samples... 
eof 7 samples.. 


19.6.5 
10.05 
19.02 


8.24 
7.06 
6.78 


6.04 
6.20 
6.39 


4.72 


(1.07) 
1.07 
1.14 


(1.0389) 
(1.0389) 
1 .038 J 


11.41 
11.99 
12.24 


5.04 
5.45 

4.82 


l,6a5 


51 






^ 1 







^ 



828. What the table shows. — From the table we learn that the 
fat in the milk under examination ranged from a little less than 4 
to over 16 per cent. The data for average composition show 
that sow's milk is richer in all components than cow's milk, this 
being especially true in regard to fat and sugar. On the average 
these sows yielded about one-third of a pound of fat each, daily. 
The microscopical examination showed that the fat globules in 
the milk of these sows were very minute, averaging only one- 
quarter the size of those in cow's milk. On the other hand, the 
number of globules in a given volume of sow's milk was about 
eight times as many as are found in cow's milk. (616) 



Investigations with Swine. 



539 



Judging from the composition of sow's milk as sliown by these 
analyses, where cow's milk is fed to very young pigs some sugar 
and cream should be added to make it resemble the milk they 
would normally receive. 

829. Individual gain of young pigs. — Since the student may wish 
to know the individual gains of the members of the litter when 
quite young, the following table is given showing weight and 
gains of sow and pigs studied by the writer at the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion. 1 The data cover 70 days before and 49 after weaning. 

Before the pigs were weaned the sow consumed 463 pounds of 
corn meal and 1,207 pounds of skim milk. The pigs, fed at a 
separate trough, during the same time consumed 122 pounds of 
corn meal and 367 pounds of skim milk. During forty -nine days 
immediately after weaning, the pigs consumed 651 pounds of corn 
meal and 1,953 pounds of skim milk. 

Weight of pigs at birth and individual gains before and after wean- 
ing — Wisconsin Station. 

Before weaning. 



Date. 



Days 
from 
birth. 



Wt. 

of 
sow. 



Weight of pigs. 



No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 



May 24 

May 25 

May 31 

June? 

.June 14...., 
June 21..... 

.June 28 

July 5 

July 12...., 

July 19 

July 26 

August 2., 



6aln.. 



Lbs. 
332 



Lbs. 



Lbs. 



Lbs. 



Lbs. 



Lbs. 



Lbs. 



Lbs, 




7 
14 
21 
29 
35 
42 
49 
56 
63 
70 



290 
285 
2T7 
278 
280 
293 
280 
278 
268 
261 



3.6 
7.1 
10.7 
19.0 
19.4 
24.2 
28.0 
32.5 
40.5 
47.0 
50.5 



3.2 
5.1 
7.7 
11.5 
14.5 
16.4 
18.7 
19.0 
22.5 
24.5 
25.0 



3,3 
5.9 
9.9 
13.5 
17.4 
22.2 
25.5 
30.0 
37.0 
44.0 
50.0 



3.2 
6.4 
9.4 
13.5 
17.8 
23.1 
26.5 
32.5 
43.5 
51.0 
60.5 



3.4 
6.3 
9.5 
12.5 
15.6 
20.6 
23.5 
29.0 
38.0 
45.5 
50.0 



3.2 
5.8 
9.2 
12.5 
16.0 
20.9 
24.2 
29.5 
38.0 
45.0 
51.0 



2.8 
4.8 
7.5 
10.8 
14.1 
18.2 
22.0 
26.0 
35.5 
42.5 
47.0 



—29 



46.9 



21.8 



46,7 



57.3 



46.6 



47.8 



44.2 



Lbs. 



1.9 

3.0 

5.1 

7.6 

10.4 

14.4 

16.5 

21.0 

26.5 

31.0 

37.5 



35.6 



After weaning. 



August 2 

August 9 

August 16 

August 23 

8eptember6... 
September 13 . 
September 20 . 

Gain 



'Kept. 1890. 



50.5 
53.0 
57.0 
62.5 
69.0 
77.5 
85.5 

35.0 



25.0 
25.0 
27.5 
33.5 
43.0 
48.0 
56.0 

31.0 



50.0 
57.5 
63.5 
72.5 
84.0 
94.0 
101. 

54.0 



60.5 
68.0 
75.0 
86.6 
101.0 
105.0 
114.0 

63.5 



50.0 
57.5 
61.0 
67.0 
80.0 
86.0 
92.0 

42,0 



51.0 
55,0 
59.0 
69.0 
76.0 
88.0 
93.0 

42.0 



47.5 
54.5 
61.0 
72.0 
79.0 
88.0 
93.0 

45.5 



37.5 
44.0 
50.0 
56.0 
64.0 
74.0 
82.0 

44,5 



640 



Feeds and Feeding. 



It will be seen that the sow lost 29 pounds in weight while 
snckling her pigs, the pigs gaining from 21.8 to 57.3 pounds each 
in the ten weeks between farrowing and weaning. For the seven 
weeks succeeding weaning, the individual gains ranged from 31 
to 54 pounds. 

830. Weight of pigs at birth — Early gains. — At the Wisconsin 
Station, ^ the writer kept records of the birth-weight and also 
weekly gains of twelve litters, numbering 86 pigs in all, for a 
period of ten weeks, at the close of which they were weaned. 
After weaning the records were continued with eight litters, con- 
taining 62 pigs in all, for seven weeks. The dams were pure-bred 
or high-grade Poland- Chinas or Chester Whites. The results are 
shown below. 

Average birth-weight and weeldy gains of pigs before and after wean- 
ing — Wisconsin Station. 



Before weaning, ten weeks, average 


After weaning, 7 weeks, average of 


oi 


' 12 litters, 86 pigs. 




8 litters, 62 pigs. 


Week. 


Average weight. 


Gain. 


Week. 


Average weight. 


Gain. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


At birth.. 


2.5 










1 


4.4 


1.9 


10 


41.5 




2 


7.0 


2.6 


11 


46.7 


5.2 


3 


9.8 


2.8 


12 


52.0 


5.3 


4 


12.5 


2.7 


13 


58.3 


6.3 


5 


15.6 


3.1 


14 


64.2 


5.9 


6 


18.6 


3.0 


15 


69.8 


5.6 


7 


22.6 


4.0 


16 


76.5 


6.7 


8 


27.8 


5.2 


17 


84.1 


7.6 


9 


33.1 


5.3 








10 


38.5 


5.4 









The heaviest pig in these litters weighed 3.6 pounds at birth 
and the lightest 1.6 pounds, the average for the lot being 2.5 
pounds. 

During the first week after birth the pigs made a gain of 1.9 
pounds. Overlooking irregularities, we may say that the pigs 
made a weekly gain of three pounds per head the fifth week after 
birth, four pounds the seventh week and five and one-half pounds 
the tenth week. At the end of the seventh week after weaning, 



1 Eepts. 1889, 1800, 1897. 



Investigations with Swine. 



541 



when 119 days old, they were gaining more than seven jjounds 
each, weekly, or over a pound per day. 

831. Feeding pigs through the dam. — The question whether a 
pound of food goes further when fed directly to young pigs or when 
first fed to the dam is an interesting one to the stockman. The 
writer has conducted trials with eight litters of pigs, noting feed 
and gains, for information on this subject. ^ In all cases the dams 
and pigs were weighed separately each week, and record kept of 
the food eaten by each sow and her litter before weaning, and of 
the pigs after weaning. The pigs were taught to eat at an early 
date, and encouraged to do so by placing food in a trough where it 
was accessible to them but not to the dam. The feed consisted of 
corn meal, middlings, oats, barley and skim milk. At ten weeks 
the pigs were weaned, the feeding continuing for seven weeks. 
We were thus enabled to measure the feed required for gain by 
the sow and pigs before weaning, and by the same pigs after 
weaning. In all cases the loss in weight by the sow while suck- 
ling her young is taken into account, the results reported being 
the net gains after deducting such loss. 

Feed required for 100 pounds of gain with soio and pigs before wean- 
ing, and by the same pigs after weaning — Wisconsin Station. 





Sows and 
pigs before 
weaning. 


Pigs after weaning. 




Meal. 


Milk. 


Meal. 


Milk. 


Lot I 


Lbs. 

241 

288 
198 
240 
184 
254 
235 
208 


Lbs. 

5G3 
649 
654 
528 
482 
509 
474 
416 


Lbs. 

251 
215 
213 
177 
187 
2-51 
259 
286 


Lbs. 
587 


Lot II 


577 


Lot III 


419 


Lot IV 


542 


Lot V 


562 


Lot VI 


502 


Lot VII 


518 


Lot VIII 


571 






Average 


231 


534 


230 


539 







It will be seen that the sow and pigs together before weaning, 
and the pigs alone after weaning, required almost identical quan- 



1 Loc. cit. 



542 Feeds and Feeding. 

titles of milk and meal for the production of 100 pounds net gain. 
At first thought it appears impossible that as good gains can be 
secured with young pigs from a given amount of feed administered 
through the sow as can be obtained by direct feeding. A pos- 
sible explanation lies in the fact that the body of the very young 
pig contains a large proportion of water, so that less dry matter 
is required for a pound of gain than with older animals. Again, 
each pound of flesh lost by the dam during this time may have 
yielded more than a pound of increase with her young. 

832. Effects of feed on teeth and skull. — Schwartzkopff, of the 
Minnesota Station, ^ treating of the influence of feed upon the for- 
mation of the skull and the dentition of pigs, writes: 

''1. The order of succession of teeth in our precocious pigs 
runs the same as in the piimitive hog. 

"2. The times when the teeth appear are variable, according 
to race, feeding and health. The same breeds raised under the 
same conditions will show the same appearance. 

'^3. The form of the skull depends upon nutrition, health, and 
more or less employment of certain muscles of the head and neck. 
Skulls of poorly nourished pigs are more long and slender than 
from those well nourished. Pigs which are prevented from root- 
ing will acquire a short, high and rounded head, while those that 
are forced to root to secure a portion of their food will develop a 
long and slender form of head." 

833. Length of intestines. — Darwin^ states that the nature of 
the food supplied the pig by man has evidently changed the 
length of the intestines. He quotes Cuvier as reporting the total 
length of the intestines of the wild boar to be nine times the body 
length; in the domestic boar 13.5 to 1; in the Siam boar 16 to 1. 
Tlie writer measured the intestines of 39 fattened hogs and found 
that the large intestine varied from 13 to 16 feet, and the small 
intestine from 54 to 60 feet, in length. The average extreme 
body length of these animals was 3.5 feet. This makes the small 
intestine alone from 16 to 19 times the length of the body, and 
the large and small intestines combined about 21 times the body 

1 Bui. 7; Breeder's Gazette, 1889, pp. 536-7. 

2 Animals and Plants under Domestication. 



Investigations with Swine. 



543 



length. From these figures it appears that the intestines of pigs 
of the improved breeds are longer in proportion to the body than 
those given by Cuvier. This may indicate that the modern pig 
can digest his food more thoroughly than his ancestors, and also 
that he can eat a larger quantity of food in a given time. 

834. Water drank. — We find little recorded on this subject, 
possibly because the matter is not considered of importance by 
many. In a feeding trial by the writer at the Wisconsin Station, ^ 
a group of ten pigs divided into two lots of five each, one lot 
getting barley meal and the other corn meal, was fed for a period 
of eight weeks, with the results given below: 

Feed and water consumed by pigs fattened on "barley meal and corn 
meal — Wisconsin Station. 



Feed given. 


Av. wt. 

pigs at be- 
ginning. 


Total 
grain 
eaten. 


Total 
gain. 


Total 

water 

consumed 


Feed 

eaten per 

100 lbs. 

gain. 


Water 
consumed 
per 100 lbs 
feed eaten 


Barley meal.. 
Corn meal.... 


Lbs. 

208 
209 


Lbs. 

2,832 
3,100 


Lbs. 

601 
713 


Lbs. 

9,0.56 
6,620 


Lbs. 

471 

435 


Lbs. 

320 
213 



The weight of water reported includes that required for soak- 
ing the meal and also that drank from a second trough. 

It will be seen that the pigs fed corn meal consumed about two 
pounds of water, and the barley -fed pigs over three pounds, for each 
pound of meal eaten. The pigs getting corn meal consumed over 
900 pounds of water, and the barley-fed pigs about 1,500 pounds, 
for each 100 pounds of gain in live weight. Pigs fed corn meal 
appear to require less water than when on other feeds. (375) 

835. Breed tests. — A number of breed tests with swine have 
been conducted by the Stations. In the following trial by the 
writer at the Wisconsin Station ^ a boar and four sows of the Berk- 
shire breed were fed in comparison with a boar and four sows of 
the Poland- China breed. The animals were registered, coming 
from several breeders of repute. The pigs ran on blue -grass past- 
ure in summer and fall and were comfortably housed in winter. 

» Kept. 1890. 2 Kept. 1894. 



544 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Feed was supplied to eacli animal separately, and a record kept 
of everything consumed except the pasture grass. The weight 
and gain of the pigs during the trial of 224 days are given in the 
table: 

Weight and gain of pure-hred BerJcsJiire and Poland- China pigs — 
Wisconsin Station. 





Boar. 


Sow number - 


- 




1 


2 


3 


4 


Poland- Chinas. 
Weight at beginning 


Lbs. 

70 
223 


Lbs. 

103 
232 


Lbs. 

121 

245 


Lbs. 

105 
237 


Lbs. 
102 


Gain in 224 days 


231 






Weight at close 


293 

172 

208 


335 

99 

23G 


366 

85 
220 


312 

86 
256 


333 


Berkshires. 
Weight at beginning 


Go 


Gain in 224 days 


247 






Weiglit at close 


380 


835 


305 


342 


312 







As these pigs were to be used for breeding purposes they were 
supplied with a variety of nutritious foods, — shorts, corn meal, 
oil meal, with some milk and whey, — the purpose being to secure 
good bone and muscle rather than fat. In calculating results five 
pounds of skim milk and ten pounds of whey were counted equal 
to one pound of grain. The total gain and the feed required for 
100 pounds of gain are as follows: 

Poland-Chinas. Berkshires. 

Total gain of lot 1,168 lbs. 1,167 lbs. 

Feed for 100 pounds of gain 524 lbs. 512 lbs. 

It will be seen that the Poland-Chinas gained one pound more 
than the Berkshires, and required 12 pounds more grain for 100 
pounds of gain. At the close of the trial the Berkshire sows, 
ranging between 305 and 342 pounds in weight, were practically 
mature in bone and muscle and carried considerable fat. The 
Poland-China sows ranged from 333 to 366 pounds and were not 
fully developed, being of a larger type than the Berkshires. To 
have fed them to the same degree of maturity as the Berkshires 
would have necessitated a further gain in weight of from 25 to 50 
pounds each. Having carefully watched the animals throughout 



Investigations loitli Swine. 



5i5 



tlie trial, the writer is convinced that with these representatives of 
the two leading Western breeds of swine there was practically no 
difference in the food requirements for a given gain. 

Summing up the breed trials with swine conducted by American 
Stations, we have the results given below: 



Tests with pure-bred swine 


— Various Experiment Stations. 


Breed. 


|2 


■d 

IB 

1 






■>± to 

.a 


Si. 

-3— c 


G K 

oi » rt 
te 
t. S" ^ 
Si «3 
3h^ 


Feed. 


Mai-iachuxeits* 

Small Yorkshire 

Berkshire 


6 

7 
4 
4 


149 
UO 
1.34 
114 


Lbs. 

33 
22 
30 
32 


Lbs. 

1.12 
1.16 
1.31 
1.40 


Lbs. 

200 
183 
206 
191 


Lbs. 

316 

289 
307 
304 


83.6 
81.6 
81.7 
82.3 


Corn meal, bran and 
gluten meal with 












Vermoni.f 

Small Yorkshire 

Berkshire 


9 
6 
3 
5 


184 
172 
160 
172 


23 
26 
34 
40 


1.04 
1.17 

1.20 
1.38 


201 

227 

228 
262 


a53 
321 
371 
335 


84.1 

8:3 
84 
84.5 


Corn meal and bran 


Poland-China 


milk or butter- 


(/'hester White 








Michigan.l 
Berkshire 


4 
4 
4 


l.'M 
1.54 
1.54 


81 
81 

89 


1.23 
1.20 
1.47 


272 
264 
320 


460 
514 
467 


83.5 
84.7 
83.2 


2 parts middlings 
with 1 part each of 
ground oats and 
corn. 


Poland-China 


Duroc-Jersey 




Maine.l 
Tam worth 


3 
3 
2 

2 
1 


27.3 

2m 

140 
1.57 
1.57 


19 

28 
65 
57 
82 


.95 

.90 
1.15 
1.03 
1.16 


278 
267 
225 
219 
265 


488 
493 
413 
464 
500 


76.3 
78.0 




Berkshire 




Chester White 


meal, skim milk 






and middlings. 


Cheshire 












On/ario.\\ 
Berkshire 


2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


117 
117 
117 
117 
117 
117 


66 
69 
50 
62 
54 


1.01 
1.03 
1.08 
1.05 
1.00 


185 
190 
177 

185 
171 
199 


475 
507 
589 

557 
469 
580 


77.19 
77.18 
74.45 
77.10 
75.79 
77.1il 








Yorkshire 


Meal mixtures. 


Chester White 








Duroc-Jersey 


62 1.16 1 




Wixcmsin.^ 
Berkshire 


5 
5 


224 
221 


101 
100 


1.04 
1 04 


334 
333 


512 

524 




Corn meal, shorts, 
















oil meal, skim 
milk and whey. 



* Rept. 1891. t Repts. 1890-2-3-4. 



J Bui. 60. g Rept. 1893. 
H Rept. 1894. 



Ag. College, Rept. 1896. 



The remarkably small amount of feed required to produce one 
hundred pounds of gain with the pigs fed in the Massachusetts 
and Vermont trials is due to the large quantity of skim milk and 
buttermilk fed. 

836. Cooking feed for swine. — Experiments with cooked feed 
for pigs have been so numerous that all cannot be here presented. 
35 



546 Feeds and Feeding. 

Those given are selected because they are strictly representative, 
covering a wide range of country, feeds and conditions. 

At the Kansas Agricultural iOollege, ^ Shelton fed one lot of five 
pigs cooked shelled corn, while a second lot of four, similar in 
all resjjects, was given uncooked shelled corn, the trial lasting 
ninety days. In cooking, the corn was placed in a barrel and 
water poured over it. Into this mass a pipe carried steam at a 
pressure ranging from 30 to 60 pounds. The kernels were cooked 
until they were sufficiently soft to be easily mashed between the 
thumb and finger. 

At the Iowa Agricultural College, ^ Stalker conducted trials for 
120 days in summer with cooked and uncooked shelled corn fed 
to Berkshire pigs. 

At the Dominion (Canada) Station, » Eobertson fed grade 
Chester Whites a mixture of ground peas, barley and rye, the trials 
beginning in December and lasting 141 days. 

At the Ohio Station, * Devol fed pure-bred Poland -Chinas and 
Berkshires for 112 days in winter. One lot of three pigs received 
the meal cooked, while to the second lot it was given dry and un- 
cooked. 

At the "Wisconsin Station, ^ the writer has conducted many 
trials with cooked and uncooked feed for pigs. Only the later 
ones are here reported. These trials lasted from 56 to 84 days 
each, the kinds of feed experimented with being given in the 
table. 

The five trials reported from the Wisconsin Station, as will be 
seen by consulting the table,are slightly in favor of cooked feed, the 
difierence being very small, however. These are the only feed- 
ing trials reported from any Experiment Station, so far as known 
to the writer, where the results are favorable to cooking. Ten 
other trials by the writer with cooked and uncooked feed for swine 
all gave results unfavorable to cooking. These and a number of 
trials at other Stations with cooked and uncooked feed for swine 
are not here included for lack of space. With this explanation 

> Kept. Prof. Agr., 1885. 

' Coburn, f^wiiie Husbandry, p. 134. 

8 Ottawa, Rept. 1891. 

* Rept. 1887. 5 Repts. 18SG-87-91. 



Investigations idth Swine. 



647 



of the conditions of the several trials, let us examine the resulta 
grouped in the table below: 

Feeding cooked and tmcoolced feed to pigs — Various Stations. 





S 
'S 

O 

6 


MM 
'S.S 

Mm 
P 


a 
"3 

M 
>. 

'3 
Q 


Grain 

eaten. 


"3 

M 

5 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 


station and feed. 


i 

O 
o 
O 


% 

a 


•3 
O 

a 


•a 

o 

8 

o 

a 


Kansas. 

Shelled com. (Cooked with steam 
vs. grain fed dry.) 


5 
4 


Lbs. 

219 

252 


Lbs. 

1.15 
1.08 


Lbs. 

3,894 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

520 
605 


Lbs. 
749 


£bs. 


3,811 


630 








Iowa. 

Shelled corn. (Not stated how 
coolced. ) 


3 
3 


156 
164 


.87 
1.10 


1,680 




312 

379 


538 




1,680 


443 








Corn meal. (Not stated how 
cooked.) 


3 
3 


173 
168 


.87 
1.08 


1,680 




299 
377 


562 




1,080 


445 








Ottawa. 

Ground peas, barley, rye, equal 
parts. (Cooked with steam.) 


4 
4 


76 

77 


1.09 

.86 


2,928 




702 
564 


417 




2,398 


425 








Ohio. 


3 
3 


191 
205 


1.20 
1.14 


2,386 




404 
383 


591 




Com meal. (Cooked to a mush.) 


2,116 


552 










Wisconsin. 


7 
7 


97 
100 


1.16 
1.20 


3,041 




684 
707 


444 






3,198 


452 










Com meal and shorts, equal parts. 
(Cooked in large kettle.) Three 
trials. 


4 
4 


75 
80 


1.15 

1.09 


1,617 




386 
366 


419 




1,603 


438 








2 

2 


141 
138 


1.29 
1.20 


678 




145 
141 


468 






688 


488 










Wisconsin. 

Two parts com meal, one part 
shorts. (Cooked in large kettle.) 
Two trials. 


10 
10 


103 
106 


1.03 
1.11 


3,204 




724 
779 


443 




3,516 


451 








4 
4 


147 
151 


1.37 
1.33 


1,292 




307 

298 


421 




1,317 


442 














j 








5*5 


476 






1 


1 







Including all the trials then, so far as known, that have been 
favorable to cooking feed, and omitting many, for lack of space, 
that are unfavorable to that operation, the average shows that 476 
pounds of uncooked meal or grain were required for 100 pounds 
of gain with pigs, while after it was cooked 505 pounds were re- 
fjuired. This shows a loss of six per cent, of the feeding value 
•of these substances through cooking. 

837. Soaked meal versus dry mea!. — At the Wisconsin Station, » 
the writer conducted two trials, lasting sixty-eight days each, 
with wet and dry meal, the feed used being corn meal and shorts, 

t Kept. 1888. 



548 



Feeds and Feeding. 



equal parts. One lot of pigs was fed dry meal, while the meal 
for the other lot was moistened with water after being placed in 
the trough. 

At the Minnesota Station, i Smith conducted trials, lasting 112 
days, with corn meal, shorts and oil meal, fed wet to one lot of 
pigs and dry to a second lot. 

At the Oregon Station, 2 French fed two lots of Berkshire pigs 
on a mixture of shorts, wheat, oats and bran. The pigs were 
two and one-half months old at the beginning of the trial, whicli 
lasted 182 days. The grain mixture was fed dry to one lot, and 
allowed to soak between times of feeding for the other. 

At the Missouri Station, ^ four lots of pigs were fed wheat and 
wheat chop by Conner for 100 days, dry grain being used in com- 
parison with grain that had been soaked thirty-six hours. The 
results of these trials are summarized in the table: 

Results of feeding pigs wet and dry meal — Four Stations. 





■3 

s 

s 


d 
"A 


Xi bb 
Ms 

■p'5 

N 
< 


a 

hi 

■3 

p 


Grain 
eaten. 


d 

bjo 




Feed for 
100 lbs. gain, 


station and feed. 


n 









Wisconsin. 


3 
3 

2 

2 


Lbs. 

114 
115 

171 


Lbs. 

1.25 
1.70 
1.18 
1.62 


Lbs. 
1,228 


Lbs. 


Lbs 

255 
837 
161 
220 


Lbs. 

481 

"m 


Lbs. 


shoi-ts, equal 
parts. 


1,361 


404 


983 




1,040 


471 










Minnesota. 

Two parts corn meal, 
two parts shorts, 


3 
3 
3 
3 


84 
29 
33 
30 


1.02 
.73 

.74 

.80 




1,500 


343 
246 
249 
269 




437 


1,085 
1,140 


441 

458 








(0. P.). 


1,233 


458 








Oregon. 

Shorts, chopped wheat, 
oats and bran. 


2 
2 


fi3 
61 


1.24 
1.45 


2,115 




453 
527 


467 




2,319 


440 










Missouri. 


3 
3 
3 
3 


111 
112 
118 
119 


1.87 
2.02 
1.38 
1.25 


2,339 




562 
605 
414 
374 


416 




Wheat chop. 


2,419 


400 


Four parts whole wheat, 
one part bran. 


2,105 


508 




2,054 


549 






















483 


451 










' 







The table shows that on the average 451 pounds of grain or 
meal, when wet or soaked, were equal in feeding value to 483 

» Bui. 22. * Bui. 28. » Bui. 29. 



Investigations with Swine. 549 

pounds of dry grain or meal, a difference of 7 per cent, in favor 
of using wet or soaked meal. 

Tlie results show that the soaking of corn is about as useful in 
increasing its feeding value as grinding. Experiment Stations 
should give more data on both these important matters. 

838. Value of exercise. — At the Utah Station, i Mills gathered 
data on this subject with pigs during trials lasting four years. 
Some of the animals were confined in small pens, others in yards, 
while still others had the run of pastures. The pigs used were the 
common stock of the region, weighing about 75 pounds each when 
the trials began. A summary of these trials is as follows: 
Besults of four years' trials with pigs confined in pens and allowed 
exercise in yards and pastures — Utah Station. 

Feed for 
100 lbs. 
of gain. 




Pigs confined in small pens 90 lbs. 512 lbs. 

Pigs allowed exercise in yards and run of pastures. 1 . 10 lbs. 420 lbs. 

These figures show .2 of a pound greater daily gain, and a sav- 
ing of 92 pounds of grain, or 18 per cent, of the feed, in making 
100 pounds of gain, in favor of yard and pasture ovfer close con- 
finement. The reader should remember that the results were 
obtained with shotes, and that the pastures should be credited 
with the food they furnished, which is of course an unknown 
amount. (903) 

839. Value of shelter.— At the Kansas Agricultural College, 2 
Shelton tested the value of shelter during winter with ten pure- 
bred Berkshires, weighing from 200 to 250 pounds each, divided 
into two lots of five each. One lot was placed in a warm base- 
ment, each pig occupying a pen by itself. The pigs in the other 
lot were likewise kept in separate pens, but in an open yard, the 
only protection being a board fence on the north. The trial began 
November 27, lasting ten weeks. The outdoor temperature ranged 
from 12 degrees below to 31 above zero, Fahr., and the indoor tem- 
perature from 19 to 42 degrees above. The pigs were given all the 

^ Bui. 40. 2 Eept. Prof. Agr., 1883. 



550 



Feeds and Feeding. 



shelled corn they would consume without waste, with the results 
stated below: 

Sheltering pigs in basement of ham as opposed to keeping in the open 
yard — Kansas Agricultural College. 



Pigs kept in bam 

Pigs kept in open yard. 



Total feed 
consumed. 



2,878 lbs. 
2,844 lbs. 



Total gain. 



604 lbs. 
479 lbs. 



Feed for 

100 lbs. 

gain. 



476 lbs. 
593 lbs. 



We learn from the above that the pigs kept in the open yard 
required 117 pounds, or 25 per cent., more corn for 100 pounds 
of gain than those given shelter. 

840. Food of support. — Sanborn's investigations^ in this line 
are the only ones reported for this country. In these trials pigs 
were fed middlings, the aim being to supply just sufficient food 
to keep the animal at even weight — neither gaining nor losing. 
The difficulties of such an undertaking are apparent to the 
thoughtful stockman. The findings are as follows: 

Maintenance allowance or food of support for the pig — Missouri 
Agncultural College. 



No. of 
pigs. 


Av. wt. 

during 

trial. 


Days 
fed. 


Feed 
eaten. 


Total 
gain. 


Per cent. 

of live wt. 
eaten 
daily. 


Time. 


3 

6 

6 

12 


Lbs. 

48 
172 
173 
175 


21 

18 
10 
28 


Lbs. 

63 

352 

172 

1,184 


Lbs. 

1.5 

20.0 

3.0 

3.0 


2.1 
1.9 
1.7 

2.0 


Summer. 
Winter (warm^. 
Winter (M^arm). 
Summer. 



In these trials the pigs always made a slight gain, but it was 
80 small that we may ignore it, the error being on the right side. 
We learn that pigs weighing 48 pounds require 2.1 pounds of 
middlings for the maintenance or support of one hundred pounds 
of live weight, and that pigs weighing from 172 to 175 pounds 
required from 1. 7 to 2 per cent, of their live weight in middlings 



1 Bui. 28, Mo. Agr. Col. 



Investigations with Swine. 



551 



for maintenance. In general, then, and until this matter is 
worked out more fully, we may say that a pig requires for its main- 
tenance two pounds of feed of value equal to middlings for each 
100 pounds of live weight. 

841. Weight, gain, and feed consumed by pigs. — At many of 
our Stations records of weights and gains of pigs and feed con- 
sumed by them have been so reported as to permit of studies con- 
cerning the influence of increased size and weight of the animal 
on the consumption of feed. All of the available data from 
trials of this character conducted in this country up to the time 
of going to press enter into the composition of the table given 
below. In compiling this table, six pounds of skim milk or 
twelve pounds of whey are calculated as equal to one pound of 
grain, according to the Danish valuation of these articles. For 
convenience of study, the data are presented for each period cov- 
ering fifty pounds of growth, the actual average weight of the 
pigs, however, being given for each division. 

Data relative to feed, weight and gain of pigs — Many American 

Stations. 



Weight of pigs in 
pounds. 


g 
> . 


V-i o 

o s^ 


Cm 

O 

u 


o 

s ^ 

fl g 


g-2 
< 




a. 
fl 

< 


1 

8 

1—4 


15 to 50 


Lbs. 

38 
78 
128 
174 
226 
271 
320 


9 
13 
13 
11 
12 
8 
3 


41 

100 
119 
107 

72 
46 
19 


174 
417 
495 
489 
300 
223 
105 


Lbs. 

2.23 
3.35 
4.79 
5.91 
6.57 
7.40 
7.50 


Lbs. 

5.95 
4.32 
3.75 
3.43 
2.91 
2.74 
2.35 


Lbs. 

.76 
.83 
1.10 
1.24 
1.33 
1.46 
1.40 


Lbs. 

293 


50 to 100 


400 


100 to 150 


437 


150 to 200 


482 


200 to 250 


498 


250 to 300 


511 


300 to 350 


53-5 






350 to 400 


378 
429 
471 


1 

1 
1 


5 
5 

• 2 


36 
36 

18 


8.52 

8.18 

10.00 


2 2.5 

i.'gi 

2.12 


1.98 
1.71 
1.77 


431 


400 to 450 


479 


450 to 500 


562 







In the above table the large number of trials reported for 
pigs weighing up to 350 pounds each furnishes reliable data. 
After this point is reached the number of animals is too small to 



552 Feeds and Feeding. 

give reliable averages. The lieavy-weiglit hogs reported in the 
last three lines of the table were fed by the writer. They were 
mature specimens, with large frames and in lean flesh when feed- 
ing began, having been summered on pasture without grain. The 
figures are introduced to show what may be accomplished with ma- 
ture hogs when they are in thin flesh at the beginning of fattening. 
We learn from the main portion of the table that from 105 to 
495 pigs were employed in calculating each line of data. The 
number of trials furnishing the data varied from 19 to 119, and 
were conducted by from 3 to 13 Experiment Stations. 

842. Amount of feed consumed daily by the pig. — The sixth 
column of the table shows the average amount of feed consumed 
daily by pigs of diflerent weights. From it we learn that pigs 
weighing less than 50 pounds each, averaging 38 pounds, con- 
sumed on the average 2.23 pounds of grain or grain equivalent 
daily. As the animal increased in weight there was a gradual 
increase in the amount of food consumed, until we find the 450- 
pound hog eating 10 pounds of grain daily, or more than four 
times as much as the 50-ponnd pig. 

843. Feed per 800 pounds live weight. — In the seventh column 
it is shown that pigs weighing 38 i^ounds consumed 5.95 pounds 
of feed for each 100 pounds of live weight. This is about six per 
cent, of their live weight. As the pigs grew larger they con- 
sumed less feed for 100 pounds of live weight, until with the 
heaviest hogs the feed consumed was but little more than two per 
cent, of their live weight. Here was a decrease of about two- 
thirds in the feed consumption per 100 j^ounds between early 
weight and maturity. 

844. Average daily gain. — In the next column are presented 
data concerning the daily gain of the pig. It is shown that the 
38-pound pig gained .76 of a pound, or 2 per cent, of its own 
weight, daily. As it increased in size the pig made larger daily 
gains, the maximum being reached Avith those weighing 271 
pounds, which made a daily gain of 1.46 pounds. With large, 
thin hogs the gain reached 1.98 pounds, or practically two pounds 
y^er day, but these animals, because of their mature frames and 
thin flesh, were fed under exceptional circumstances. 



Investigations with Swino. 



553 



845. Feed for 100 pounds of gain. — The last column is of in- 
terest to all, especially the practical feeder, for it teaches a most 
interesting and important lesson concerning the feed requirements 
of pigs. Those which averaged 38 pounds each made 100 pounds 
of gain from 293 pounds of feed. This exceedingly small allow- 
ance of feed for gain was probably due in part to the fact that the 
young pigs used in these trials received much skim milk, which 
was practically all digestible, the other feed given being also 
more highly digestible than that usually supplied older animals. 
With pigs weighing 78 jjounds, 400 pounds of feed were required 
for 100 pounds of gain. There was a gradual increase in feed 
requiremeuts for 100 pounds of gain, until the hog weighing 320 
X)ounds required 535 pounds of grain for 100 of gain. This is 135 
pounds, or 33 per cent., more feed than was required by the 78- 
pound pig. (566, 757, 907) 

846. Percentage gain of pigs from birth to maturity. — In a pre- 
ceding table (830) were given the birth-weight and weekly gains 
of twelve litters of pigs. In the table just presented the weights 
and gains for older animals were given. Combining data from 
both these tables the following is deduced, which i)resents the 
weekly gain in pounds and percentagely of pigs from birth to 
maturity: 

Weekly gain of pigs from birth to maturity — Various Stations. 



Age or weight of pigs. 


Weight of pigs. 


Gain in 7 days. 


At birth 


Lbs. 

2.5 

4.4 
7.0 
9.8 
12.5 
15.6 
18.6 
22.6 
27.8 
33.1 
38.5 


Per cent. 


1 irst week 


76 


Second week 


59 


Tliird week 


40 


Foil rt h week 


28 


F 1 rt li w ee li 


25 


Sixth week 


19 


Seven th week 


22 


Eiglith week 


23 


Nil! til weelv 


19 


Ten th week 


16 






Under 100 pounds 


78 
128 
174 
226 
271 
320 


7.0 


Under 150 pounds 


6.0 


Under 200 pounds 


5.0 


Under 2.50 pounds 


4.1 


Under 300 pounds 


3.8 


Under 350 pounds 


3.1 







554 Feeds and Feeding. 

The table sliows that the pigs averaged 2.5 pounds in weight 
when farrowed. When these pigs were one week old they weighed 
on the average 4.4 pounds each — a gain of 76 per cent, of their 
farrow weight in one week. When the pigs were two weeks old 
they weighed on the average 7 pounds each, an increase of 59 per 
cent, over their weight at the close of the preceding week. Grad- 
ually the percentage of weekly increase diminished, until with 
the close of the tenth week it stood at 16 per cent. 

Here the data furnished by the first table closes, and what fol - 
lows is drawn from the second. Under this division, when th<? 
pigs reached an average of 78 pounds each, they gained 7 per 
cent, of their live weight in one week. Gradually the percentag<> 
of increase was reduced, until with the hog weighing 320 pounds 
it was 3.1 per cent. Had the trials been prolonged there would 
have come a time when the animals would have eaten no mort^ 
feed than would maintain them, making no gain whatever, or 
even falling back in weight. 

In comparing figures like those in the last table we should 
not forget that the bodies of very young animals are composed 
largely of water, while with mature ones the proportion of water 
in the increase is small, the gain being mostly fat. 

847. Length of the fattening period. — The following example 
illustrates why pigs require more and more feed for a given gain 
as the period of confinement and high feeding lengthens, (565) 
In a trial conducted by the writer at the Wisconsin Station, ^ 
eighteen cross-bred Poland- China Chester White hogs of unusually 
good bone and constitution were used. Previous to the trial these 
animals had been on an experiment in the rape and clover field, 
where they had received a fair allowance of grain, because of 
which they were in rather high flesh, though they had not reached 
their normal size. The feed during this trial consisted of two- 
thirds corn or corn meal and one-third wheat middlings — soft- 
coal ashes and salt being suiDplied in addition. 

Owing to the strong constitutions and general high quality of 
these hogs, the writer believes these results are fully as favorable 
for a long feeding period as stockmen can hope to attain under 
the best conditions. 

1 Kept. 1897. 



Investigations with Swine. 



555 



In the following table appear the data gathered during this 
trial: 

Influence of length of fattening period on the food consumption and 
gain of hogs — Wisconsin Station. 



First week 

Second week... 

Third week 

Fourth week ... 

Fifth week- 

Sixth week 

Seventh week ., 
-Eighth week.., 

Ninth week 

Tenth week 

Eleventh week 
'IVelfth week.. 



Aver- 
age 
weight. 



Lbs. 

222 

235 
246 
2.57 



Aver- 
age 
weekly 
gain. 



Lbs. 

11.4 
13.3 
10.5 
10.7 



Feed 
eaten 

during 
week 

per hog. 



Lbs. 

41 

48 
50 
50 



Feed for 100 pound.s 
of gain. 



By 

weeks. 



Lbs. 

362 
362 
475 
473 



By four-week 
periods. 



First 

four weeks, 

418 lbs. 



270 
281 
294 
303 



13.9 
10.1 
13.1 

8.9 



51 
51 
51 
51 



368 
510 
391 
572 



Second 

four weeks, 

461 lbs. 



313 
322 
332 
340 



10.5 
8.9 
9.6 



52 
52 
52 
52 



499 

587 
649 
598 



Third 

four weeks, 

559 lbs. 



Studying the table, it is seen that the heaviest weekly gains and 
the smallest amount of feed consumed per week were at the begin- 
ning of the trial. As the trial continued, the weekly gain in weight 
gradually diminished, while the feed consumed per week gradu- 
ally increased. In consequence of these two opposite factors, the 
amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain increased 
from week to week as the trial progressed. During the first week 
of the trial 362 pounds of feed made 100 pounds of gain, while 
during the last week 598 pounds were required. Grouping the 
results into periods of four weeks each, we find that for the first 
four weeks 418 pounds of feed were required for 100 pounds of 
gain. During the second four weeks there were required 461 
pounds of feed, or ten per cent, more, for 100 pounds of gain. 
For the last four weeks, 559 pounds of feed were required, or an 
increase of 33 per cent, for 100 pounds of gain. 

The lesson is plain that the gain of fattening hogs after the first 
four or five weeks of confinement is secured only by constantly in- 
creasing quantities of feed for a given weight of increase. 



CHAPTEE XXXIII. 



VALUE OF VARIOUS FEEDING STUFFS FOR PIGS. 

848. Corn meal compared with corn. — The question whether 
•coiu shall be ground before it is fed to fattening swine is one of 
great importance because of the vast quantity of this grain an- 
nually used for this purpose. The subject has not received the 
attention it merits from investigators at the Stations, only a few 
trials being on record. Those rei^orted in the following table are 
upon the point in question : 

Feeding shelled corn in opposition to corn meal — Kentucky, Missouri 
and Ohio Stations. 





No. animals 
fed. 




.3 

"ci 
bo 


Grain eaten. 




Feed for 100 
pounds gain. 




-2 • 
r^ o 




"Where fed. 


Shelled 
corn. 




Kentucky*. | 

Missourit - 

OhioJ { 


o 
2 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
3 


Lbs. 

100 
100 
100 
150 

85 

86 

205 


Lbs. 

1.89 
1.44 
2.04 
1.90 
.54 
.35 
1.14 
1.20 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
753 


Lbs. 

175 

182 
638 
594 
250 
164 
383 
404 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
430 


780 


429 




3,196 


501 


2,864 


482 




1,612 


645 


1,239 


755 




2,116 


552 


2,039 


505 








Av. of trials 














543 


532 





















*Rept. 1889. t Bills. 1, 10. i Kept. 1887. 

Averaging these trials, we find that 532 pounds of corn meal 
or 543 i)onnds of whole corn were required for 100 pounds of gain. 
This shows that two per cent, only was saved by grinding. 

To secure more information on this subject, the writer began 
investigations in 1896 with whole and ground corn for pigs, and 
has completed four trials as reported on the following page. ^ 



Repts. Wis. Exp. Sta., 1896-97. 



Value of Vatious Feeding Stuffs for Pigs. 



557 



In these trials tlie pigs were divided into even lots, one lot 
receiving corn meal ground fine and the other shelled corn. Some 
middlings was fed in order to secure more economical gains, the 
allowance being the same for both lots on trial. The corn used 
was Number 2 Iowa yellow dent, containing about twelve per cent, 
moisture. Summarizing the results we have the following: 

Feeding pigs ivhole corn or shelled corn, with middlings additional — 
Wisconsin Station. 





A v. wt. 
at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Av. 

gain. 


Av. 

daily 
gain. 


Total feed for 
100 lbs. gain. 


Feed. 


Corn- 
meal 
ration. 


Whole- 
corn 
ration. 


1896. 
First trials 9 pigs in each lot. 


Lbs. 

346 
354 

OOQ 

225 

210 
212 

198 
183 


Lbs. 

150 
137 

108 
79 

150 
109 

82 
79 


Lbs. 

2.14 
1.96 

1.54 
1.13 

1.78 
1.30 

1.37 
1.25 


Lbs. 
443 


Lbs. 




481 


Second trials lOpigsin each lot 


487 






591 


1897. 
First trial, 9 pigs in each lot. 


442 




Ijot II Fed shelled corn 


501 


Second trial, 7 pigs in each lot. 


462 




Lot 11 Fed shelled corn 


424 








Average of four trials, 70 
pile's in all 








459 


499 













In the trials reported above, seventy pigs in all were used. 
With so large a number the average presents figures of value on 
the question under consideration. It will be seen that in three of 
the four trials, corn meal was more economical than whole corn. 
The average for the four trials shows that 459 pounds of corn 
meal and middlings, or 499 pounds of whole corn and middlings, 
were required to make 100 pounds of gain. The saving effected 
by grinding the corn was eight per cent. (382, 536) 

849. Va!ue of corn and cob meal. — Sanborn reports experi- 
ments with corn and cob meal for pig feeding from the New 
Hampshire 1 and Missouri Agricultural Colleges. ^ 



1 Rept. New Hamp. Bd. Agr. 1880, pp. 259-262. 

2 Bui. 1, Col. of Agr., 1883. 



558 



Feeds aiid Feeding. 



Shelton, of tlie Kansas Agricultural College, ^ also conducted a 
trial with the same material. Their findings are summarized in 
the following table: 

Feeding corn and cob meal in comparison with corn meal to pigs — 
New Hampshire, Missouri and Kansas Agricultural Colleges. 





Av. 

wt. at 
be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Com 

and cob 

meal 

eaten. 


Com 
meal 
eaten. 


Gain while on — 


Feed for 100 
pounds gain. 




Corn 

and cob 

meal. 


Corn 
meal. 


Corn 
and cob 
meal. 


Corn 
meal. 


New Hampshire 
Missouri 


Lbs. 

52 
161 
199 


Lbs. 

1,915 
2,893 
3,619 


Lbs. 

1,527 
3,196 
3,832 


Lbs. 

416 
456 
557 


Lbs. 

317 
638 
572 


Lbs. 

460 
634 
650 


Lbs. 

482 
501 


Kansas 


670 







In the New Hampshire and Kansas trials, corn and cob meal 
proved superior to the same weight of corn meal, while in the 
Missoui'i trial corn meal was more valuable. 

Practical experience is strongly in favor of using the cob with 
the grain when feeding meal to farm animals. (158) 

850. Gluten meal and corn compared with wheat. — At the Cor- 
nell Station, ^ AVatsou divided a bunch of twelve pigs into two 
lots of six each, the first lot receiving wheat meal and the second 
a mixture of corn meal and gluten meal, both being fed skim 
milk in addition. Feeding began October 10 and continued four 
months, with the results shown in the table: 



Corn and gluten meal compared 


with wheat meal — Cornell Station. 




Av. 

wt. at 
begin- 
ning. 


Av. 

gain. 


Feed consumed. 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 




Skim 
milk. 


Wheat. 


Corn 
meal 
and 
gluten 
meal. 




Milk. 


Grain 


Lot I, fed wheat ... 


Lbs. 
61 

66 


Lbs. 
198 

218 


Lbs. 
8,110 

8,110 


Lbs. 
3,473 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

682 

621 


Lbs. 
292 


Lot II, fed corn meal 
and gluten meal... 


3,561 


272 









1 Kept. 1894. 

2 Bui. 89. 



Value of Various Feeding Stuff's for Figs. 



559 



The table shows that a combination of gluten meal and corn 
meal was about seven per cent, superior to wheat meal when both 
were fed in connection with skim milk. (161-4, 166-8) 

851. Wheat. — Because of the low price of wheat during recent 
years, a number of Stations have endeavored to determine its 
vjdue as a feed for fattening pigs. Trials at four of the Stations 
are summarized in the following table: 

Hummary of tests with wheat meal and corn meal for pig feeding — 

Various Stations. 





Av. wt. at 
beginning. 


No. of 
days 
fed. 


Feed eaten. 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 


Station. 


Corn 
meal 
fed. 


Wheat 
meal 
fed. 


Corn 
meal. 


Wheat 
meal. 


Corn 
meal. 


Wheat 
meal. 


Kansas* 


Lbs. 

152 
136 
96 
243 
247 


Lbs. 

163 
137 
103 
247 
247 


77 
70 
90 
63 
126 


Lbs. 

2,294 
1,228 
1,159 
1,212 
6,014 


Lbs. 

2,257 
1,273 
1,144 
1,206 
6,054 


Lbs. 

439 
453 
4.58 
499 
496 


Lbs. 
411 


Ohiof 


438 


South Dakota!... 

Wisconsin^ 

Wisconsin^ 


481 
522 
465 


Average 












469 


463 

















* Bui. 53. t Kan. State Bd. Agr., Sept. 30, 1894. t Bui. 38. § Rept. 1895. 

The average of the above five trials at four Stations shows that 
isix pounds more of corn meal than of wheat meal were required 
to produce one hundred pounds of gain, live weight, with pigs. 
The difference being so small, we may conclude that wheat meal 
and corn meal are practically of equal value for fattening swine. 

852. Combining wheat and corn meal. — In the preceding article 
it was shown that wheat meal and corn meal were practically of 
■equal value for pig feeding. At the Wisconsin Station, while 
feeding wheat meal to pigs, the writer fed a mixture of corn 
meal and wheat meal to other lots to test the value of mixtures 
over single feeds. By these feeding trials it was shown that a 
mixture of wheat and corn meal, equal parts, was more effective 
than wheat meal alone, the saving by feeding the mixture amount- 
ing to five per cent. In these results we have a good illustration 
-of the economy of feeding grains in combination rather than 



560 



Feeds and Feeding. 



singly. (759) Tbe results of these trials in wliicli a mixture of 
wheat meal and corn meal were fed in opposition to corn meal 
alone, are as follows: 

Feeding ivJieat meal and a mixttire of wlieat and corn meal — Wiscon- 
sin Station. 





Av. weight at 
beginning. 


No. of 
days 
fed. 


Total feed con- 
sumed. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 




Wheat 
meal. 


Half 
corn 
meal, 
half 
wheat 
meal. 


Wheat 
meal. 


Half 
corn 
meal, 
half 
wheat 
meal. 


Wheat 
meal. 


Half 
corn 
meal, 
half 
wheat 
meal. 


First trial.... 
Second trial. 
Third trial... 
Fourth trial. 


Lbs. 
113 

11!) 

247 
247 


Lbs. 

116 
112 
246 
241 


70 

70 

63 

126 


Lbs. 

975 
1,0.J4 

1,206 
6,054 


Lbs. 

988 
1,054 
1,227 
6,088 


Lbs. 

510 

502 
522 
465 


Lbs. 

502 

488 
41)1 
460 


Average ... 












500 


485 

















853. Feeding sheaf wheat. — The value of unthreshed wheat 
was determined by French, at the Oregon Station. ^ Twelve 
high-grade Berkshire pigs about eight months old were divided 
into two lots of six each, the first being fed a mixture of three 
parts chopi^ed (coarse-ground) wheat and one part each of shorts 
and ground oats, the second lot being supplied with wheat in the 
sheaf. Sample sheaves when threshed showed that thirty-five per 
cent, of their weight was grain, and the grain consumed was cal- 
culated on this basis. The results of the trial, which lasted from 
September 3 to October 29, are summarized below: 

Feeding sheaf wheat in comparison icith ground wheat, shorts and 
ground oafs — Oregon Station. 



Lot T, fed grain mixture. 
Lot II, fed sheaf wheat 



A v. wt. at 

begin- 
niuff. 



Lbs. 

187 
188 



Average 
gain. 



Lbs. 

150 

45 



Total 

grain 

fed. 



Lbs. 

3,587 
1,988 



Feed for 

100 lbs. 

gain. 



Lbs. 

397 
744 



1 Bui. 42. 



Value of Varioits Feeding Stuffs for Figs. 



561 



It will be seen that the pigs fed sheaf wheat consumed about 
one-half as much grain as did the other lot and made only one- 
third the gain. French reports that the pigs fed sheaf wheat 
worked from three to four hours daily in separating the grain 
from the straw, and the table shows that even with this exertion 
they were not able to secure sufficient feed to permit rapid gains. 

854. Middlings. — At the Wisconsin Station, ^ the writer fed three 
lots of three pigs each on corn meal and middlings, giving the 
first corn meal, the second middlings, and the third a mixture of 
the two, equal parts. 

At the Missouri Agricultural College, ^ Sanborn conducted two 
trials with middlings in comparison with corn and corn meal. 
The results of these trials are summarized below: 
Comparative value of middlings and corn m£al for pig feeding — 
Wisconsin Station and Missouri Agricultural College. 



Station and feed. 



Wisconsin Station. 

Lot I, com meal 

Lot II, middlings 

Lot III, equal parts middlings and 
corn meul 

Missouri College, 

Lot T, com meal 

Lot II, middlings , 

Missouri College. 

Lot I, com 

Lot II, middlings 



Days 
fed. 


Feed 
eaten. 


Gain. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


42 
42 


559 
501 


104 
96 


42 


470 


107 


116 
116 


1,612 
1,524 


2.50 
252 


46 
46 


397 
334 


79 
91 



Feed for 

100 lbs. 

gain. 

Lbs. 

537 
622 

439 



645 
605 



502 
367 



In these trials middlings proved superior to corn, Sanborn's 
second trial showing a remarkably high value for this feed. This 
investigator, commenting^ on this by-product of wheat milling, 
writes: ''The economy of ship-stuff (middlings) compared with 
corn has been noted by me every year for seven years, the figures 
of which are as 108 to 100." 

The economy of feeding middlings and corn meal in combina- 
tion instead of separately is shown in the Wisconsin trial, where 

8 Bui. 14. 



Rept. 1885. 
36 



2 Buls. 10, 14. 



562 



Feeds and Feeding. 



439 pounds of the corn-middlings mixture proved as valuable as 
522 of middlings or 537 of corn meal when fed separately. While 
middlings were superior to corn when fed alone, a combination 
of the two proved twenty per cent, more economical than mid- 
dlings alone. (107, 174) 

855. Wheat bran compared with middlings. — At the Maine Sta- 
tion, 1 Jordan fed pigs, weighing 200 pounds each, with bran and 
skim milk in one case, and middlings and skim milk in another, 
the trial lasting seventy-two days, with results as below: 
Lot A fed: Gain. 

413 pounds middlings) ,,^ nonndq 

1,126 pounds skim milk I iiu pounds. 



poui 

Lot B fed: 

413 pounds bran ") 

1,126 pounds skim milk j' 



54 pounds. 



The results show that with the same allowance of feed the mid- 
dlings were twice as valuable as the bran. (174—5, 896) 

856. Bran with corn for pig feeding. — At the Alabama Station, ^ 
Duggar fed Essex j)igs corn and an equal mixture of corn and 
wheat bran for a period of sixteen weeks, there being three pigs 
on each feed. The results are shown in the following table: 

Feeding corn or a mixture of corn and wheat hran — Alahama Station. 



Grain fed. 



Lot I, fed corn 

Lot II, fed J corn, ^ wheat bran. 



Av. wt. 






at be- 
gin- 


Food 
eaten. 


Gain. 


nmg. 






Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


58 


844 


173 


60 


1,044 


203 



Food 
for 100 
pounds 

gain. 

Lbs. 

487 
521 



The two trials just reported show that wheat bran cannot suc- 
cessfully be used in large amount in pig feeding, especially with 
young animals. This fact is doubtless due to the coarse, fibrous 
character of bran and the large percentage of inert matter it 
carries. 

857. Barley meal. — To ascertain the value of barley for pig 
feeding the writer conducted trials at the "Wisconsin Station^ in 



Kept. 1889. 



2 Bui. 82. 



8 Bept. 1890. 



Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs. 



563 



■which barley meal was fed in opposition to corn meal. In the 
first trial there were five pigs in each lot; and in the second six. 
The results are summarized below: 

Feeding barley meal and corn meal to pigs — Wisconsin Station. 



Grain fed. 


Av. wt. 
at begin- 
ning. 


Food 
eaten. 


Gain. 


Grain 
consumed 

for 100 
lbs. gain. 


Barley meal 


Lbs. 

208 
209 


Lbs. 

2,882 
3,100 


Lbs. 

601 
713 


Lbs. 
471 


Corn meal 


435 







Barley meal and milk vs. corn meal and milk. 





Av. wt. 

at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Feed eaten. 




Gain. 


Feed and water 
for 100 lbs. gain. 


Grain fed. 


Grain 


Milk. 


Grain 


MUk. 


W'ter 
drank 


Barley meal 


Lbs. 

79 
73 


Lbs. 

1,998 

1,807 


Lbs. 

2,404 
2,192 


Lbs. 

3,511 

1,686 


Lbs. 

G04 
591 


Lbs. 

330 
306 


Lbs. 

398 
371 


Lbs. 

581 


Gorn meal 


285 







By the first table we learn that — 

471 pounds of barley meal produced 100 pounds of gain. 
435 pounds of corn meal produced 100 pounds of gain. 

This shows a difference of thirty-six pounds in favor of corn 
meal. In the second trial there is a difference of twenty-four 
pounds of meal and twenty-seven pounds of skim milk. Averaging 
both trials we find that it required eight per cent, more barley 
meal than corn meal to produce a given gain. These results co- 
incide with Fjord's experiments in showing that barley is some- 
what less valuable than corn for fattening swine, though the dif- 
ference is not large. (178, 894) When we take into account the 
fact that barley has been found by the Danes to be the best single 
grain for the production of bacon of the highest quality, its value 
in swine feeding is apparent. 

It is interesting to note in the second trial that the barley-fed 
pigs drank about twice as much water as those getting corn meal. 



564 



Feeds and Feeding. 



858. Oats. — At the Wisconsin Station, i the writer conducted 
trials with whole and ground oats fed with corn meal to pigs, 
with results shown in the table: 

Feeding whole and ground oats with corn meal to pigs — Wisconsin 

Station. 



Feed. 


Av. wt. 

at be- 
ginning 


Daily- 
gain. 


Feed 
eaten. 


Gain. 


Grain 

for 100 

pounds 

gain. 


Whole oats. 

§ whole oats, i corn meal 

I whole oats, | corn meal 

Ground oats. 

f ground oats, J corn meal 

1 ground oats, | corn meal 


Lbs. 

117 
114 

113 
114 


Lbs. 

.68 

.82 

1.03 
1.27 


Lbs. 

1,388 
1,457 

1,593 

1,839 


Lbs. 

246 
296 

371 

457 


Lbs. 

564- 
492 

429 

402 



We learn from the above that the best returns were secured 
when feeding a ration consisting of one-third ground oats and 
two-thirds corn meal. Whole oats gave poorer returns than ground 
oats. The feed requirements for 100 pounds of gain in both trials 
where ground oats were used were very low, and show the high 
value of this grain for pig feeding when ground and fed in com- 
bination with com meal. (186-7) 

859. Oat feed. — Oat feed was tested at the Massachusetts Sta- 
tion 2 by Lindsey. Six grade Chester White pigs from the same 
litter were divided into two lots, with four pigs in the first and 
two in the second. One lot received oat feed, the other corn meal, 
both getting skim milk, with the following results: 

Oat feed in comparison with corn meal — Massaxihusetts Station. 





Total feed. 


Gain. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 




Milk. 


Meal. 


Milk. 


Meal. 


Four pii^s getting oat feed 

Two pigs getting corn meal... 


Lbs. 

5,389 
2,695 


Lbs. 

869 
435 


Lbs. 

377 
225 


Lbs. 

1,429 
1,198 


Lbs. 

231 
193 



About 20 per cent, more oat feed than corn meal was requiied 
1 Kept. 1889. 2 Kept. 1896. 



Value of Yarioiis Feeding Stuffs for Pigs. 



565 



to produce 100 pounds of gain. The lower value of this feed was 
doubtless due to the oat hulls it contained. (189) 

860. Peas. — At the Utah Station, i Mills fed one lot of pigs on 
ground peas and bran, and another upon corn and bran, equal 
parts. The trial, which was conducted in winter, lasted 161 days. 

At the South Dakota Station, 2 Chilcott fed soaked peas to one 
lot of pigs, and soaked corn meal to a second. The trial was con- 
ducted during the fall, lasting 90 days, with results as follows: 
Feeding peas to pigs — Utah and 8outh Dakota Stations. 



Station. 


Feed. 


No. of 
animals 
on trial. 


Av. wt 
at be- 
ginning 


Daily 
gain. 


Grain 
eaten. 


Gain. 


Grain 
forlOO 

lbs. 
gain. 


Utah. 


Ground peas and 
bran, equal parts, 
fed wet 


3 
3 

2 

2 


Lbs. 

Ill 
112 

82 
95 


Lbs. 

1.09 
.63 

1.21 
1.40 


Lbs. 

1,919 
1,379 

918 
1,159 


Lbs. 

528 
303 

218 
253 


Lbs. 
363 


South 
Dakota. 


Corn and bran. 

Canada field peas, 

unground, soaked 

Corn meal, soaked.. 


455 

421 

458 



In both cases peas proved superior to corn. (228) 

861. Kaffir corn.— At the Kansas Station, ^ Georgeson fed red 

Kaffir-corn meal in opposition to corn meal and soja-bean meal, 

with the results given below: 

Feeding Kaffir-corn meal to pigs — Kansas Station. 



Feed. 



^rst trial. 

Kafflr-corn meal 

Corn meal 

Second trial. 

Kaffir-corn meal 

Corn meal 

'i Kaffir-corn meal \ 

I soja-bean meal / 

f corn meal ■) 

j soja-bean meal / 

* Bui. 34. 2 Bui. 38. 



No. of 
animals 
on trial 



Av. wt, 

at be- 



Lbs. 

153 
152 

63 
64 

62 



62 



Daily 

gain 

per 

head 



Lbs. 

1.37 
1.70 

.50 

.80 

1.44 
1.46 



Grain 
eaten. 



Lbs. 

2,180 
2,294 

1,188 
1,477 

2,166 
2,048 



Gain. 



Lbs. 

423 
523 

191 
306 

547 



554 



Grain 
for 
100 
lbs. 

gain. 



Lbs. 

515 
439 

621 

482 

396 



369 



3 Buls. 53, 61. 



666 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The table indicates that Kaffir- corn meal falls from eighteen to 
thirty-three per cent, below corn meal in value for pig feeding. 
This grain, though rich in carbohydrates, lacks protein, and is 
therefore not suitable for feeding alone to young pigs. The ad- 
Yantage of adding some substance rich in protein to the ration of 
corn or Kaffir corn is shown in the last trial, where the soja-bean 
meal materially increased the daily gain of the pigs, and cut down 
the requirements of feed for 100 pounds of gain in a marked de- 
gree. It is probable that if Kaffir corn were boiled it would prove 
more satisfactory in pig feeding, as was shown to be the case with 
pigeon-grass seed. (195, 865) 

862. Buckwheat. — At the Ottawa Station, i Eobertson fed lots 
of five pigs each on ground buckwheat and ground wheat, the 
trial lasting 77 days, A second trial with six i^igs in each lot 
was conducted for 140 days. For half the ration one lot received 
ground buckwheat, the other ground wheat; the other half of 
the ration consisted of ground barley, rye and wheat, and wheat 
bran. In all trials the meal was soaked thirty hours before feed- 
ing. The results were as fellows: 

Feeding buckwheat in comparison with wheat and mixed grain — 

Ottawa Station. 



Feed given. 


Av. wt. 
at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Feed 
eaten. 


Gain. 


Feed 
for 100 

lbs. 
gain. 


Mrst trial. 
Ground buckwheat 


Lbs. 

103 
97 

45 
49 


Lbs. 

2,109 
1,272 

3,238 
2,463 


Lbs. 

474 
310 

800 
649 


Lbs. 
44r> 


Ground wheat 


410 


Second trial. 
^ ground buckwheat, i mixture of 

barley, rye, wheat, and wheat bran. 
\ ground wheat, ^ mixture barley, 

rye, wheat, and wheat bran 


405 
380 







This shows that though buckwheat has a high value it docs 
not quite equal wheat as a feed for pigs. Six per cent, more grain 
was required in the buckwheat mixture than in the wheat mixture 
for 100 pounds of gain. (192) 



» Ilepta. 1894-95. 



VaJue of Various Feeding Stuffs for Figs. 



567 



863. Cowpeas. — At the Alabama Station, i Duggar fed lots of 
four Essex pigs each upon corn, cowpeas, or a mixture of the 
two, for a period of sixteen weeks^ with the results given in the 
table: 



Feeding corn or coiopeas, or equal mixtures of tJie two 

Station. 



Alabama 



Lot I, corn 

Lot II, cowpeas 

Lot III, J corn, i cowpeas. 



Av. wt. 
at be- 
gin- 
ning:. 



Lbs. 

58 
60 
62 



Feed 
eaten. 



Lbs. 

844 
954 
909 



Gain. 



Lbs. 

173 
198 
210 



Feed 

for 100 

lbs. 

gain. 



Lbs. 

487 
481 
433 



The above shows that corn and cowj)eas were practically equal 
for producing gain, while a mixture of the two proved superior 
to either alone. (108, 230) 

864. Rice meal. — At the Massachusetts Station, 2 Lindsey tested 
the value of rice meal for pig feeding in the following manner: 
A litter of six ten -week-old pigs was divided into two lots of three 
each. The first lot was fed rice meal, and the second corn meal, 
both getting skim milk in addition. The result of the trial was 
as follows: 

Feeding rice meal and corn meal to pigs — Mafisachusetfs Station. 



Feed. 


Feed eaten. 


Gain. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 




Milk. 


Meal. 


Milk. 


Meal. 


Rice meal 


Lbs. 

3,519 
3,519 


Lbs. 

867 
867 


Lbs. 

385 
386 


Lbs. 

914 
912 


Lbs. 
225 


Corn meal 


225 







This trial shows that, when fed in connection with skim milk, 
rice meal has practically the same value as corn meal and skim 
mUk. (191) 

865. Pigeon-grass seed. — Two trials were conducted by the 
writer at the Wisconsin Station ^ with pigeon-grass seed screened 

1 Bui. 82. 2 Rept. 1896. ^ Rgpt. 1894. 



568 



Feeds and Feeding. 



from -wheat, to test its value for pig feeding. The pigs used were 
pure-bred Polands and Berkshires, six on each feed. A prelimi- 
nary trial showed that the pigs would eat but little of the raw 
meal, though after cooking it was consumed with relish. Accord- 
ingly the trial was planned as follows: Lot I received a ration 
consisting of two-thirds pigeon-grass meal, thoroughly cooked, 
mixed with one-third corn meal, uncooked. Lot II received 
corn meal, uncooked, only. To Lot III was fed a ration of one- 
third pigeon -grass seed meal and two -thirds corn meal, both un- 
cooked. Lot III consumed the ration containing this proportion 
of pigeon-grass seed meal without serious objection. The table 
summarizes the results: 

Feeding pigeon-grass meal, coolced and uncooked, with corn additional 
to pigs — Wisconsin Station. 





Av. wt. 

at be- 
ginning 


Gain. 


Feed eaten. 


Grain 

for 100 

pounds 

gain. 


Kind and condition of feed. 


Corn 
meal. 


Pigeon- 
grass 
meal. 


Lot I, f cooked pigeon-grass meal, 
J corn meal, uncooked 


Lbs. 

238 
238 

235 


Lbs. 

264 
224 

201 


Lbs. 

416 
1,199 

656 


Lbs. 
965 


Lbs. 
522 


Lot II, corn m.eal only, uncooked. 


535 


Lot III, 1 pigeon-gmss meal, un- 
cooked, f corn mciil, uncooked.. 


377 


566 



The above shows that the ration containing two-thirds cooked 
pigeon-grass meal and one-third uncooked corn meal was superior 
to corn meal only. The third lot, fed one-third pigeon-grass 
meal and two- thirds corn meal, both uncooked, gave poorer re- 
turns than the others. It is evident that pigeon-grass seed when 
cooked is a valuable feed for swine, and the trials show it was 
much relished. To be satisfactory for pig feeding the seed of this 
grass should be both ground and cooked. 

866. Potatoes. — At the Wisconsin Station, ^ the writer con- 
ducted trials with cooked potatoes mixed with uncooked corn 
meal, fed in opposition to uncooked corn meal only, to fattening 
pigs. The potatoes were cooked in as little water as possible, it 



Kept. 1890. 



Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Figs. 



5G9 



being found that they were most relished when so prepared. 
After cooking they were mashed in the kettle and corn meal 
added, the whole forming a thick mush. In the first trial there 
were three pigs in each lot, and two in the second, the trials last- 
ing forty-two days. 

Feeding cooked potatoes with corn meal added^ and com meal only, to 
fattening pigs — Wisconsin Station. 

Corn meal alone. 





Av. wt. at 
beginning 


Grain fed. 


Gain. 


Com meaJ 

for 100 lbs. 

gain. 


First trial 


Lbs. 

243 
216 


Lbs. 

983 
578 


Lbs. 

224 
131 


Lbs. 
438 


Second trial 


441 







Corn meal and potatoes. 





Av. wt. 
at be- 
ginning 


Feed eaten. 


Gain. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 




Corn 
meal. 


Pota- 
toes. 


Corn 
meal. 


Potar 
toes. 


First trial 


Lbs. 

242 
223 


Lbs. 

444 
351 


libs. 

1,332 
1,053 


Lbs. 

153 
150 


Lbs. 

290 
234 


Lbs. 
870 


jSecond trial 


702 







Combining the first and second trials we have the following: 

440 pounds of corn meal produced 100 pounds of gain. 
262 pounds of corn meal with 786 pounds of cooked potatoes produced 
100 pounds of gain. 

From this we find that 786 pounds of cooked potatoes, when fed 
with corn meal, effected a saving of 178 pounds of corn meal; to 
save 100 pounds of corn meal would therefore require 441 pounds 
of potatoes. In Fjord's experiments, 400 pounds of potatoes were 
lield equal to 100 pounds of grain. As corn is somewhat more 
valuable for fattening the pig than the grains used by Fjord, these 
results may be considered concordant in determining the value of 
potatoes and meal. (897) In general, we may say that a bushel of 
corn is worth four and one-half bushels of potatoes for fattening 



570 



Feeds and Feeding. 



purposes wlien cooked and fed with corn meal. Potatoes may have 
a higher value than the rating here given, in furnishing variety in 
ration to growing animals. (316, 658) 

867. Roots. — At the Ottawa Station, ^ Eobertson fed a mixture 
of peas, barley and rye, steamed and warm, to one lot of pigs, 
giving a second lot the same feed, with sugar beets additional. 
For a third lot the grain was uncooked. The fourth lot received 
the same feed as the third, with sugar beets additional. 

At the Utah Station, ^ Sanborn fed wheat to one lot of pigs and 
wheat and roots to a second. In a second trial a mixture of oats, 
peas, wheat and barley was fed to one lot, with roots additional 
to a second. 

At the Ohio Station, ^ Devol fed corn to one lot of pigs and corn 
and roots, mostly carrots, to a second lot. The results of these 
trials are summarized in the following table: 

Feeding grain with and without roots — Ottawa, Utah and Ohio Statiom. 



Station. 



Ottaiva. 

Grain only 

(xrain and roots. 

Grain only 

Grain and roots. 

Utah. 

Grain only 

Grain ami roots. 

Grain only 

Grain and roots. 



Ohio. 

Grain onlj' 

Grain and roots. 



No. of 
ani- 
mals. 



Av. wt. 
at be- 
gin- 
uins:. 



Lbs. 

75 
47 

77 
60 



95 
90 
61 
65 



140 
141 



Feed eaten. 



Grain Roots 



Lbs. 

2,928 
2,411 
2,398 
2,223 



858 
120 

1,12(J 
500 



2,520 
2,562 



Lbs. 



1,538 
1,563 



828 



2,346 



1,213 



Gain. 



Lbs. 

702 
625 
564 
571 



59 

52 

172 

152 



432 
472 



Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 



Grain Roots 



Lbs. 

416 

380 
425 
389 



607 
231 
651 
329 



583 
543 



Lbs. 



246 
27^5 



1,592 



1,543 



257 



Averaging the above trials we learn that feeding 400 pounds of 
roots sav^ed 65 pounds of grain. On this basis, 615 pounds of roots 
would save 100 pounds of grain. The results conform closely with 
the Danish findings, in which one pound of barley proved equal to 



Rept. 1891. 



2 Rept. 1891. 



3 Rept. 1884. 



Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs. 



571 



six to eiglit pounds of mangels and four to eight pounds of fod- 
der beets. (325) 

868. Artichoke. — Schweitzer, of the Missouri Station, i reports 
a trial by Porter in which artichokes were fed with -wheat meal 
to pigs, 325 pounds of wheat meal and 820 pounds of artichokes 
giving 100 pounds increase. Artichokes were found to have the 
same feeding value as potatoes. (323, 488) 

868a. Milk. — Scheven^ found that when whole (unskimmed) 
milk was fed to pigs twelve weeks old, from 900 to 1, 620 pounds 
produced 100 pounds of gain, the average being 1,253 pounds. 
Studying the value of skim milk, this investigator found that 1,613 
pounds of sweet skim milk and 1,545 pounds of sour skim milk 
produced 100 pounds of gain. He concludes that skim milk is 
rendered more useful by combining it with starchy feeds. 

869. Feeding separator skim milk. — At the Wisconsin Station, ^ 
the writer conducted nineteen trials with eighty-eight pigs of all 
ages, to determine the value of separator skim milk in combina- 
tion with corn meal. The proportion of milk to meal varied from 
one to nine pounds of milk for each pound of meal fed. For 
convenience the results are arranged in groups; the first grouj) 
comprising the trials in which not over three pounds of skim 
milk were fed with one pound of corn meal, the second when 
from three to five pounds of milk were given with each pound of 
corn meal, etc. The quantity of meal and milk required for 100 
pounds of gain is here shown: 

Separator sMm milk and corn meal required for 100 pounds of gain — 
Wisconsin Station. 





No. of 
trials. 


Feed for 100 
pounds gain. 




Meal. 


Milk. 


When feeding: 
1 pound corn meal to 1-3 pounds skim milk.. 
1 pound corn meal to 3-5 pounds skim milk.. 
1 pound corn meal to 5-7 pounds skim milk.. 
1 pound corn meal to 7-9 pounds skim milk.. 


3 

. 8 
5 
3 


Lbs. 

321 

265 
250 
207 


Lbs. 

58.5 
1,048 
1,434 
1,616 



» Bui. 29. 



Martiny, Die Milch. 



3 Kept. 1895. 



572 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Assuming tliat 500 pounds of corn meal, fed alone, would have 
produced 100 pounds of gain with these pigs, we find that with 
the first group 585 pounds of skim milk effected a saving of 179 
pounds of corn meal. On this basis, 327 pounds of skim milk 
equals 100 pounds of corn meal when not over three pounds of 
milk are fed with each pound of meal. Calculating the value of 
skim milk in connection with corn meal for pig feeding according 
to the proportion fed with the meal, we deduce the following: 

When feeding 1 pound of corn meal with from 1-3 pounds of separator 

skim milk, 327 pounds of skim milk saves 100 pounds of meal. 
When feeding 1 pound of corn meal with from 3-5 pounds of separator 

skim milk, 446 pounds of skim milk saves 100 pounds of meal. 
When feeding 1 pound of corn meal with from 5-7 pounds of separator 

skim milk, 574 pounds of skim milk saves 100 pounds of meal. 
When feeding 1 pound of corn meal with from 7-9 pounds of separator 

skim milk, 552 pounds of skim milk saves 100 pounds of meaU 
Average of all, 475 pounds of skun milk equals 100 pounds of meal. 

Fjord's experiments show six pounds of skim milk equal to one 
pound of grain. The difference in the ratios is doubtless due to 
the fact that Fjord fed a much larger i)roportion of milk to meal 
than was usually employed in the Wisconsin trials. (357, 659) 

870. Placing a money value on separator skim milk. — The feeder 
wishing to know the money value of skim milk measured in corn at 
varying prices will find the following table of value: 

Value of separator skim milk in combination with corn meal for pig 
feeding, loith corn at varying prices. 





Value of 100 pounds of skim milk. 


Value of corn. 


When feed- 
ing 1 to 3 
pounds of 
milk for 1 
pound of 
corn meal. 


When feed- 
ing 7 to 9 
pounds of 
milk for 1 
pound of 
corn meal. 


Aver- 
age of 
all trials 


$10 per ton ( 28 cents per bushel ) 

12 per ton (33.6 cents per bushel^ 

14 per ton (39.2 cents per bushel) 

16 per ton ^44.8 cents per bushel j 

18 per ton (50.4 cents per bushel) 

20 per ton (56.0 cents per bushel) 

30 per ton (84.0 cents per bushel) 


Cents. 

15 
18 
21 
24 
28 
31 
46 


Cents. 

9 
11 
13 
15 

16 
18 

27 


Cents, 

11 
13 
15 
17 
19 
21 
32 



Yalue of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs. 573 

The table shows that when corn is worth $10 per ton (28 cents 
per bushel), separator skim milk has a value for pig feeding of 
15 cents per hundred pounds, provided not more than three 
pounds of milk are fed with each pound of meal. If, however, 
the feeder gives nine pounds of milk with each pound of meal, 
then skim milk is worth only nine cents per hundred pounds. 
The average of the trials is eleven cents. With higher values for 
com there is a relative increase in value for skim milk. 

In the above we have measured skim milk with corn meal for 
making gains with pigs. Those familiar with this feeding stuff, 
appreciating its worth for bone and muscle building, know that 
in many cases it has a higher value than is here given, especially 
for growing pigs. 

871. Sweet and sour milk compared. — At the Vermont Station, * 
Cooke fed sweet and sour milk to pigs, there being three animals 
in each lot in the first trial, and four in each lot in the second. 
The sour milk was allowed to reach the loppered or coagulated 
stage before being fed. 



Feeding sweet and sour sJdm milk to very young pigs ■ 

Station. 



■Vermont 



Feed. 


Av. wt. 
of pigs 
at be- 
ginning 


Feed eaten. 


Gain. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 


Milk. 


Grain. 


MUk. 


Grain. 


First trial. 

Sweet skim milk... 

Sour skim milk 

Second trial. 

Sweet milk 


Lbs. 

16 
17 

31 

29 


Lbs. 

6,057 
6,996 

9,632 
9,632 


Lbs. 

935 
926 

2,100 
2,100 


Lbs. 

473 
524 

955 
963 


Lbs. 

1,280 
1,144 

1,009 
1,000 


Lbs. 

198 
177 

220 


Sour milk 


218 







In the second trial the results were practically equal; in the 
first trial the pigs getting sour milk gave better returns. Of these, 
Cooke writes: "It was evident within three weeks after the pigs 
were put on the separate diets that those having sour milk were eat- 
ing their food with a better relish, were looking sleeker and grow- 
ing faster, although both lots ate their food up clean." 

» Repts. 1391-92. 



574 



Feeds and Feeding. 



The evident superiority of sour milk over sweet milk (868a) 
for pig feeding — in most cases at least — awaits explanation 
from the investigators. 

872. Buttermilk. — At the Massachusetts Station, i Goessmann 
fed lots of three pigs each on buttermilk and skim milk to ascer- 
tain their relative value. Both lots received corn meal additional, 
with results shown in the table: 

Feeding buttermilk and sJdm milk — Massacliusetts Station. 



Feed 


Av. wt. 
at be- 
ginning 


Feed eaten. 


Gain. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 




Milk. 


Corn 
meal. 


Milk. 


Corn 
meal. 


Buttemiillv 


Lbs. 

48 
49 


Lbs. 

8,372 
8,592 


Lbs. 

718 
713 


Lbs. 

619 

618 


Lbs. 

1,351 

1,390 


Lbs. 
116 


tSldmniillc 


115 











It will be seen that butt-ermilk gave as good returns as skim 
milk. In general it may be assumed that when no water has been 
added to buttermilk it has a feeding value with pigs equal to 
skim milk. (358) 

873. Whey. — At the Wisconsin Station, ^ the writer conducted 
several trials with whey for pig feeding, two of which are reported 
below. At the Ontario Agricultural College, ^ Dean reports two 
trials with this by-product. In these trials, one lot of pigs was 
maintained on meal only, the pigs at the Wisconsin Station get- 
ting a mixture of corn meal and middlings, and those at the 
Ontario College wheat and barley mixed Mith an equal weight of 
shorts. 

The whey used in these trials was from the manufacture of full- 
cream cheese; hence it contained a considerable quantity of fat 
and some casein. In Fjord's experiments, in Denmark, 1,200 
liounds of whey equaled 100 pounds of meal. (887, 889) The 
whey used by this investigator was the by-product from the manu- 
facture of skim cheese from centrifugal skim milk. Such whey 
is necessarily poorer in fat than that used in American trials. 
(359, 660) 

2 Kept. 1891. 



Rept. 1884. 



Kept. 1896. 



Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Figs. 



575 



The results of the Wisconsin and Ontario trials with whey as 
a feed for pigs is shown in the following table: 

Feeding trials with grain and whey — Wisconsin Station and Ontario 

College. 

Wisconsin Station. 



^irsf trial. 
Lot L. 
Lot IL. 

Lot in.. 

Lot IV.. 



Average for whey-fed lots 
Second trial. 

Lot I 

Lot II 

Lot III 

Lot IV 



Average for whey-fed lots 



No. of 

pigs in 

trial. 



Daily 
gain 
per 

head. 



Lbs. 



.93 
1.21 
1.12 
1.09 



Feed for 100 lbs. 
gain. 



Meal. Whey. 



Lbs. 

463 
327 
2.57 
181 



255 

486 
372 
289 
232 



298 



Lbs. 



687 
1,815 
1,871 



1.458 



1,100 
1,726 
2,309 

1,712 



Ontario Agricultural College. 


Lot I 


5 


1.43 
1.76 
1.78 


494 
381 
383 




Lot II 


5 

6 


860 


Lot III 


819 







Averaging the results of the trials we find that — 

481 pounds of grain produced 100 pounds gain. 

303 pounds of grain with 1,398 pounds of whey produced 100 pounds gain. 

This shows that 1,398 pounds of whey saved 178 pounds of 
grain. On this basis, 785 pounds of whey equals 100 pounds of 
grain. 

874. Meat scrap. — An experiment by Watson at the Cornell 
Station! throws light on the value of meat scrap for feeding pigs. 
A bunch of twelve pigs divided into two lots of six each was fed 
four months, beginning October 10, as follows: Lot I received 
corn meal only, while Lot II was fed one part meat scrap to two 



1 Bui. 89. 



576 



Feeds and Feeding. 



parts corn meal, by weight. The results of the trial are shown 
in the following table: 

Feeding corn meal and meat scrap in comparison with corn meal 
only — Cornell Station. 





Av. wt. 

at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Av. 

gain. 


Feed consumed. 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain. 




Com 
meal. 


Com meal 

and meat 

scrap. 


Com 
meal. 


Corn meal 

and meat 

scrap. 


Lot I, fed corn meal 
only 


Lbs. 
64 

64 


Lbs. 
103 

173 


Lbs. 
2,639 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
426 


Lbs. 


Lot II, fed corn meal 
and meat scrap 


4,147 


400 











The meat scrap caused a large consumption of feed — something 
desired by feeders. The pigs fed meat scrap gained 70 per cent, 
more than those fed corn meal only, but the saving in feed for a 
given gain was only 6 per cent. Somewhat more lean meat was 
found in the carcass of the pigs receiving the meat scrap. (339) 

875. Pasture. — At the Utah Station,^ Mills conducted trials 
covering four seasons, with pigs in pens and on pastures consisting 
of alfalfa and grass, principally the former. (307) Some pigs 
were fed all the grain they would consume, while others received 
a limited supply or none at all. 

Feeding pigs varying amounts of grain on pasture — Utah Station. 



Where and how fed. 


No. of 
trials. 


Average 
daily gain 


Grain for 

100 pounds 

of gain. 


In yard, fed grass, full grain ration 

In pasture, full grain ration 


4 
4 
2 
2 
2 
3 
1 


Lbs. 

1.1 
1.3 
1.2 

.87 

.64 

.36 

*.20 


Lbs. 

465 
417 


In pasture, three-fourths grain ration... 
In pasture, one-half grain ration 


377 
352 


In pasture, one-fourth grain ration 

In pasture, no grain 


243 


In i^en, fed grass only 









Loss. 



We learn that the pigs confined in the yard and fed grass with 



1 Bui. 40. 



Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs. 577 

a full grain ration made an average daily gain of 1.1 pounds, re- 
quiring 465 pounds of grain for 100 pounds of gain, while those 
in the pasture, likewise receiving a full feed of grain, made a 
daily gain of 1.3 pounds, requiring only 417 pounds for 100 of 
gain. There was a saving of 10 per cent, by feeding on pasture 
instead of in the yard, where grass was supplied in addition to 
the grain. 

The table also shows that when feeding three-fourths of a full 
grain allowance the pigs made a daily gain of 1.2 pounds, requir- 
ing only 377 pounds of grain for 100 of gain. With still less 
grain the daily gain was much reduced, but so also was the 
amount of feed required for 100 pounds of gain. Finally, three 
trials on pasture without grain showed an average daily gain 
of .36 of a pound a day, or 2| pounds a week — a very satis- 
factory result. When grass was cut and carried to pigs confined 
in pen, they could not be maintained on this feed alone, shrinking 
in weight at the rate of .26 pounds daily. (307) These results 
show that the pig cannot be successfully nourished by soiling, as 
can cattle, especially the dairy cow. 

876. Clover hay with meal. — Stewart^ fed pigs averaging sev- 
enty-five pounds each with corn meal, two quarts of short-cut 
clover hay being added to each day's allowance, and the whole 
wet with hot water and allowed to stand from ten to twelve 
hours before feeding. Another lot received meal prepared in the 
same way but without the clover mixture. The lot getting clover 
hay showed the best appetite, the greatest thrift and made the 
steadiest gains. The pigs getting meal gained 110 pounds each 
in 120 days, while those having the cut clover hay mixed with 
their meal gained 143 pounds, or 30 per cent. more. (927) The 
possible value of moistened clover hay as a by-feed with pigs is 
well illustrated by this trial. 

877. Corn and blue-grass pasture. — At the Illinois Station, 2 
Morrow conducted four trials during three seasons with pigs rang- 
ing on blue-grass pasture. One lot was given a full feed of corn, 
the second a half feed only. As a check, a bunch of three pigs 

' Feeding Animals, p. 472. 
2 Bui. 16. 
37 



578 



Feeds and Feeding. 



was confined in a lot free from vegetation and fed corn. All 
were supplied with coal-slack, salt and water. The first period 
in each trial lasted eight weeks and the second four weeks. The 
averages for the four trials are given below: 
Trials with pigs fed corn on blue-grass pasture, or corn only — Illi- 
nois Station. 



Lots given half feed of corn, on grass first 

period 

Fed full grain allowance, second period 



Average 

Lots given full feed of corn on grass, first 

period 

Second period 



Average 

Lots given corn with no grass, first period 
Second period 



Average. 



Total 
gain. 



Lbs. 

505 
4G3 



905 
327 



7'.)1 
221 



Corn 
fed. 



Lbs. 

2,190 
2,076 



4,217 
1,796 



4,207 
1,625 



Corn per 
100 lbs. 
gain. 



Lbs. 

433 
448 



441 

465 
549 



507 
532 
725 



629 



We learn from the above that the best returns were secured 
when giving a half feed of corn on blue-grass pasture during the 
first i^eriod of eight weeks, then following for the next four weeks 
with a full feed of corn, the pigs still running on pasture. Under 
these conditions 441 pounds of corn gave 100 pounds gain. Where 
the pigs were given a full feed of corn at all times while on i)ast- 
ure, 507 pounds of corn were required for 100 pounds of gain. 
The check lots fed in yards without grass required 629 pounds of 
corn for 100 pounds of gain. There was a saving of 30 per cent, 
when a half feed of corn was given on pasture, and of 20 per cent, 
when a full feed was given, as compared with feeding hogs in the 
lot without pasture. 

878. reeding pigs on pasture only. — The trials reported by Mills 
(875) show that jiigs may make fair gains on pasture alone when 
alfalfa is the main forage plant. Morrow ^ reports that all at- 
tempts to carry pigs on blue-grass pasture without feeding grain 
resulted so unfavorably that he was forced to give up experiments 

1 Bui. 16, lU. Expt. Sta. 



Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs. 



579 



in this line. Unpublished data secured by the writer coincide 
with these findings. It is possible that pigs may make satisfac- 
tory gains on pastures alone, but no Station has yet shown that 
they can do so, if we except Utah, where alfalfa was grazed. 

879. Rape forage. — At the Wisconsin Station/ Craig con- 
ducted two trials with rape forage as a feed for swine, in prep- 
aration for the final fattening period. In the first trial there 
were twenty grade Poland-China pigs; in the second, thirty-eight 
grade Chester Whites. In each case the pigs were divided into 
two even lots, the first having a run in a rape field, with grain 
additional, and the second, confined in a pen, receiving grain 
only. The first trial lasted 76 days and the second 42 days, 
daring which time the feed consumed and the gains were as shown 
in the following table: 

Feeding grain with and witJiout rape forage — Wiseonsin Station. 





Corn. 


Mid- 
dlings. 


Rape. 


Gain. 


First trial. 
Lot I, in rape field 


Lbs. 

1,886 
2,096 


Lbs. 

690 
1,042 


Acres. 

.32 


Lbs. 

853 


Lot II, in pen 


857 








Difference 


710 

2,220 
3,106 


352 

1,109 
1,553 






Second ti-ial. 
Lot I, in rape field 


.6 


1,066 


Lot II, in pen 


1,076 








Difference 


886 


444 













Summarizing the two trials and calling the gains equal, we 
learn that .92 acres of rape saved 2,392 pounds of grain. This 
shows one acre of rape equivalent to 2,600 pounds of grain in jiig 
feeding. Since rape can be used as a catch crop, and costs but 
two or three dollars an acre for seed and planting and nothing 
for harvesting, the value of this crop in swine feeding is apparent. 
(334-5) 

880. Droppings of corn-fed steers and pasture. — At the Illinois 
Station, 2 Morrow grazed three yearling steers on a two-acre blue- 
grass pasture, giving a full feed of corn additional. Two pigs were 

1 Kept. 1897. 2 Bui. 16. 



580 



Feeds and Feeding. 



placed in the same lot to subsist upon the droppings of the steers 
and the pasture. As a check trial, other pigs were confined 
in a similar pasture and fed shelled corn. During two trials, 
lasting twelve weeks each, the gains made by the pigs were as 
follows: 

First trial. Second trial. 
Average gain of pigs following steers on pasture. 59 pounds. 59 pounds. 
Average gain of pigs fed coi*n on pasture 72 pounds. 99 pounds. 

It will be seen that the pigs following the steers made excellent 
gains compared with those ranging on pasture and receiving in 
addition a full feed of corn. Since the nutriment in the drop- 
pings would otherwise have been wasted, the great importance 
of following up grain-fed steers with pigs is apparent. Morrow 
states that when the pigs following the steers were finally fattened 
they gained in weight for a time at the rate of 3. 2 pounds each 
daily, and returned as much as 16.8 pounds of increase from one 
bushel of corn. This trial shows the value of the droppings of 
grain-fed steers in preparing shotes for final fattening. (538) 

881. Droppings of corn-fed steers for pigs. — The writer * divided 
a bunch of twelve steers into two lots of six each, giving to the 
first shelled corn and to the second corn meal. Each steer re- 
ceived thirteen pounds of corn or corn meal daily, with half that 
weight of wheat bran in addition. With each lot were placed 
three pigs, averaging 175 pounds each, to subsist on the drop- 
pings, their further needs being supplied by corn fed in a trough. 
As a check, three pigs were placed in a pen and fed corn. The 
results are shown below: 

Gains of pigs following corn fed steers — Wisconsin Station. 



Pigs in pen 

Pigs following steers getting corn meal.. 
Pigs following steel's getting whole corn 



Feed for 100 
pounds gain 



564 lbs. 
479 lbs. 
272 lbs. 



Per cent, corn 
saved by pigs 
eating drop- 
pings of steers. 



15 

52 



The above shows a saving of 15 per cent, in the feed required 



*Wis. Expt. Sta., Rept. 1884. 



Value of Various Feeding Stuffs for Pigs. 



581 



by pigs following steers getting com meal, and 52 per cent, with 
those following steers getting whole corn. 

These results are in conformity with the experience of stockmen, 
who have learned that the droppings of meal-fed steers are not 
as valuable as those from steers getting whole corn. (538) 

882. Gain from a bushel of corn. — In the table below are given 
the results of a large number of feeding trials by Morrow, at the 
Illinois Station, ' in which whole corn only was fed to pigs: 
Results of feeding whole corn only to pigs — Illinois Station. 



No. 
of 
lot. 


Time of feeding. 


No. ol 
days. 


No. of 
pigs. 


Av. wt. 
of pigs. 


Gain 
per day. 


Com foi 
100 lbs. 
gain. 


Gain 

per bu. 

of corn 

fed. 










Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1 


Nov. 24 to Dec. 29.. 


35 


2 


290 


2.56 


418 


13.4 


*1 


Nov. 24 to Dec. 22.. 


28 


2 


284 


2.70 


382 


14.7 


*1 


Dec. lo to Dec. 22.. 


7 


o 


311 


3.21 


333 


16.8 


"A 


May 5 to June 2.. 


28 


5 


153 


1.39 


437 


12.8 


'A 


June 2 to June 30.. 


28 


5 


192 


1.38 


484 


11.6 




June 30 to July 28.. 


28 


5 


224 


.85 


646 


8.7 


'6 


April 29 to May 27.. 


28 


2 


209 


1.40 


380 


14.7 


4 


June 10 to July 22.. 


42 


2 


212 


.90 


535 


10.5 


b 


July 30 to Sept. 10.. 


42 


3 


66 


.77 


441 


12.7 


6 


June 17 to Sept. 9.. 


84 


3 


207 


.60 


676 


8.3 


7 


Dee. 30 to Feb. 4.. 


56 


5 


109 


.51 


808 


6.9 


8 


Jan. 24 to Feb. 4.. 


28 


6 


106 


1.05 


4&5 


12 


9 


Nov. 22 to Jan. 4.. 


42 


2 


210 


1.30 


500 


11.2 


iU 


Jan. 17 to Feb. 21.. 


35 


4 


192 


1.29 


460 


12.2 


11 


Nov. 3 to Dec. 15.. 


42 


3 


120 


.74 


605 


9.3 


11 Dec. 15 to Dec. 22.. 


7 


3 


138 


.55 


620 


8.9 


To 


tals and averages 




50 


173 


1.09 


534 


10 9 









* Omitted from averages. 
The above shows that on an average the pigs gained about 1.1 
pounds per day, and that a bushel of corn weighing 56 pounds 
produced 10.9 pounds of gain, live weight. The table shows a 
wide range of returns — as low as 6.9 pounds of gain from a bushel 
of corn in one case, while at the other extreme we have 16.8 
pounds. This last return, for one week only, was with pigs which 
had previously followed steers fed corn on blue-grass pasture. 
While, then, the gains may range from 6 to 16 pounds, we. may 
conclude that 11 pounds of increase, live weight, is a satisfactory 
return from a bushel of whole corn. (568, 812) 
1 BuL 16. 



582 Feed^ and Feeding. 

883. Pork production at the South. — At the Arkansas Station, ' 
Bennett fed corn meal and bran to a sow and five pigs on clover 
pasture. At weaning time the sow was removed and the experi- 
ment continued with the five pigs. From March 30 to July 26 
the pigs were kept on clover. From that date until September 21 
they were maintained on sorghum stalks and sorghum seed. 
From the latter date until November 15 they were confined in a 
field planted with Spanish peanuts. The total feed eaten by the 
sow while suckling the pigs, and by the five pigs during growth 
and fattening, was as follows: 

Orain. 

Bran fed 98 pounds. 

Corn fed during growth and fattening 33^ bushels. 

Crops gathered for pigs. 

Clover 25 acres. 

Sorghum 25 acres. 

Spanish peanuts 60 acres. 

Total 1.10 acres. 

The combined weight of the five pigs when ten months old was 
as follows: 

Weight before slaughtering 1,215 pounds. 

Weight after slaughtering 1,032 pounds. 

Average weight before slaughtering 243 pounds. 

Average dressed weight 206 pounds. 

Clover was found very satisfactory for pasture while it remained 
fresh and grain was fed in addition. Seed and stalks of sorghum 
also proved satisfactory. While feeding on Spanish peanuts 
the pigs grew rai^idly. Bennett concludes that two weeks' final 
feeding with corn will suffice to harden the flesh of pigs fed on 
peanuts. 

1 Bui. 41. 



CHAPTEE XXXIV. 

DANISH PIG-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS. 

I. Trials with Various Feeds. 

884. The work of Fjord and Friis. — Since the year 1880 a large 
number of pig-feeding experiments have been conducted by the 
Danish Experiment Station at Copenhagen, under the direction 
of the late Professor J. N. Fjord and his successor, F. Friis. 
These experiments are exceedingly valuable because of the vari- 
ety of conditions under which they were conducted, the large 
number of animals included, and the care bestowed on the details 
of the work. 

The feeding was conducted on the co-operative plan on a num- 
ber of Danish estates, or large farms, under the direct supervis- 
ion of the officials of the Station, who planned the experiments, 
made the weighings, sampled and analyzed the feeds and con- 
ducted the slaughtering tests. In these trials the pigs were 
divided into selected even lots composed of five to ten animals 
each, the different lots being so fed as to express the comparative 
value of the feeds under examination. In a majority of cases 
the object in view was the relative feeding value of different 
swine foods under good farm conditions. Incidentally a number 
of other problems were included, such as the value of shel- 
ter, the influence of water on fattening, breed exi^eriments, ques- 
tion of sex in fattening, influence of season on fattening, etc. 
The results of these experiments have been published in the 
l^eriodical reports (Beretninger) of the Station, of which thirty- 
nine have appeared to date. 

The Danish pound equals 1.1 pounds avoirdupois. As the 
results stated are nearly always relative, they are given in Danish 
pounds, as they appear in the original reports. Wherever avoir- 
dupois pounds are given, it is so stated. 



584 



Feeds and Feeding. 



885. Slaughtering tests. — On the completion of the feeding 
trials the animals were usually shipped to a Danish pork-packing 
house, where they were slaughtered in the presence of one of the 
Station officers. Weighings were made and notes taken by ex- 
perts as to the quality of the carcass, the thickness of the layer 
of fat over the shoulder and loin, as well as any characteristic 
differences in the lots attributable to the system of feeding fol- 
lowed or to other causes. The carcasses were grouped in four 
classes, according to their quality. Class I contained those car- 
casses which graded best; Class IV was the poorest, with Classes 
II and III intermediate. The grading was always with special 
reference to the demands of the English market. The quality 
of the meat, whether hard or soft, the thickness of the layer of 
external fat, the size of the carcass, and other points determin- 
ing their commercial value, were the deciding factors. As an 
illustration of the grading we present the figures given below, 
which are the results of an examination and grading of 158 ani- 
mals used in one trial : ^ 

Illustration of pork grading for Fnglish market requirements — Copen- 
hagen Station. 



Grade of pork. 


No. of 
ani- 
mals. 


Live 
weight. 


Shrink- 
age. 


Thickness 
of fat on 
shoulder. 


Thick- 
ness of 
fat on 
loin. 


Highest, Class I 


98 
49 
10 


Lbs. 

158 
170 
181 


Per cent. 

25.9 
24.7 
23.2 


Inches. 

1.7 
2.0 
2.2 


Inches. 
1.0 


Next best, Class II 

Lowest,* Class III 


1.3 
1.5 



* One animal only in Class IV. 

It will be seen that the best grade included the lightest animals, 
these falling under 175 pounds avoirdupois. The shrinkage with 
this grade was heavy — nearly 26 per cent. The fat on the shoulder 
and loin was much thinner than with those in the poorest grade. 
The flesh also was much firmer. 

886. Centrifugal versus gravity skim milk. — Seven experiments' 
were conducted with 72 animals in all, the trials lasting 4 to 6 

» Kept. 10, 1887. » Rept. 2, 1884. 



Danish Fig-feeding Experiments. . 585 

weeks. Barley, oats, corn and peanut meal were fed separately 
or combined; in all cases more or less skim milk was given in 
addition to the grain. The pigs were all less than 12 weeks old, 
averaging 6 weeks, and weighing less than 40 pounds at the begin- 
ning of the trials. The feed consumed and the average gain 
are shown below: 

Gain of pigs fed gravity and separator skim milk with grain — Copen- 
hagen Station. 



Gravity skim 
milk. 



Centrifugal 
skim milk. 



Average daily gain per head 

DifFereuce iu favor of gravity skimming., 
Per cent, of fat in skim milk 



.776 lbs. 

.035 lbs. 

.63 per cent. 



.7411bs. 
, 15 per cent. 



The pigs in these trials were fed about 8 pounds of milk a day 
on the average. Of gravity skim milk 100 pounds produced a lit- 
tle over .4 pounds more gain in live weight than the same quantity 
of centrifugal skim milk. The pigs fed gravity skim milk gained 
as much in 23 days as the othei-s in 24 days. Allowing a fair 
value for the butter fat, centrifuging the milk is shown to be the 
more profitable method. (357, 659, 869-71) 

887. Skim milk compared with whey. — The relative value of 
separator skim milk and whey left in the manufacture of skim 
cheese from separator skim milk was studied ^ in experiments 
conducted during 1885-87. In one series, where three pounds of 
whey were fed against one pound of skim milk, the weight of 
the pigs fed varied from 79 to 105 pounds. These trials included 
34 animals, the feeding lasting from 53 to 60 days. There was a 
daily gain of .91 pounds for the lots fed skim milk and 1.22 pounds 
for those fed whey. 

Another series of experiments'^ was conducted on six different 
farms with 258 animals in all, varying from 28 to 174 pounds each 
at the beginning of the trials, the feeding periods running from 
50 to 160 days. In this series, which included nineteen trials, 
two pounds of whey were fed against one pound of separator 

» Rept. 1887. 

» Rept. 10, p. 26. 



586 Feeds and Feeding. 

skim milk. The average gain for the animals in both lots Tras 
exactly the same, viz., 1.13 pounds daily. 

The conclusion drawn is that one pound of separator skim milk 
equals two i)ounds of whey obtained in the manufacture of cheese 
from separator skim milk. Such whey is necessarily very free 
from fat, and consequently has as low a feeding value as whey can 
possess. 

These results were corroborated by similar experiments con- 
ducted during 1887-88, as well as by still later trials. ^ 

The results of investigations at the Wisconsin Station and the 
Ontario Agricultural College (873) show that whey has a higher 
feeding value for pigs than is here reported. The reason for this 
lies in the fact that in the American trials the whey contained 
more fat and probably more casein than that fed at the Danish 
Station. (359,660) 

888. Skim milk compared with grain. — Centrifugal skim milk 
was compared^ with rye and barley, being first fed in the ratio of 
5 pounds of milk to 1 of grain; in later experiments, 6 pounds 
of milk to 1 of grain. Groups containing 175 pigs in all were 
divided into 35 lots. The milk fed varied in amount as shown in 
the table, which gives also the average grain consumed daily and 
the gain made per animal. 

8Mm milk compared with barley and rye — Copenhagen Station. 





Average daily increase. 


Feed given daily. 


When fed 
barley. 


When fed 
rye. 


1.27 lbs. grain, 16.3 lbs. skim milli 


.79 lbs. 
.91 lbs. 
.99 lbs. 


.81 lbs. 


2.17 lbs. grain, 12.1 lbs. skiru milk 


.91 lbs. 


2.97 lbs. grain, 7.8 lbs. skim milk 


1.00 lbs. 







It will be seen that greater gains were made where the quantity 
of skim milk fed was decreased. The results show that 5 pounds 
of milk could not replace 1 pound of grain, where rye or barley 
was fed with the skim milk. In the second and third series of 
trials 60 pigs were used in each, series. When the allowance of 



1 Kept. 15, p. 88. 
» Rept. 10, 1887. 



Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 



587 



skim milk was decreased in the ratio of 1 pound of grain to 6 pounds 
of skim milk on the average, the following results were obtained: 

Comparison of centrifugal skim milk with rye and barley — Copen- 
hagen Station. 





Average daily increase. 


Grain and milk fed. 


When fed 
barley. 


When fed 
rye. 


Average. 


F'i.rst series. 

1.2 lbs. grain, 14.6 lbs. skim milk... 
1.7 lbs. grain, 11.2 lbs. skim milk... 

2.3 lbs. grain, 7.2 lbs. skim milk... 
Second series. 

1.3 lbs. grain, 14.6 lbs. skim milk... 
2.0 lbs. grain, 10.7 lbs. skim milk... 
2.6 lbs. grain, 6.8 lbs. skim milk... 


.85 lbs. 
.86 lbs. 
.90 lbs. 

.92 lbs. 
.95 lbs. 
.94 lbs. 


.88 lbs. 
.88 lbs. 
.83 lbs. 

.95 lbs. 
.95 lbs. 
.96 lbs. 


.87 lbs. 
.87 lbs. 
.87 lbs. 

.94 lbs. 
.95 lbs. 
.95 lbs. 



In later work at that Station these feeds have always been 
substituted for one another in the proportion of 6 pounds of sep- 
arator skim milk for 1 pound of grain. If all experiments in 
this line are- averaged, we find that the daily gain per head was 
practically identical, whether much or little grain was replaced by 
skim milk, in the ratio of 1 to 6, showing that the comparative 
feeding value of these feeds is expressed by this ratio. 

889. Grain compared with whey. — Two series of experiments' 
with sixty animals in all were conducted, in which one pound of 
grain was fed as an equivalent to twelve pounds of whey from 
separator skim-milk cheese. In these trials the average weight 
of the pigs fed was about 50 pounds, the experiments lasting 115 
days each, with results shown below: 

Feeding whey and grain to pigs — Copenhagen Station. 

Daily increase 
Feed per pig daily, per head. 

1.3 lbs. grain, 27.1 lbs. whey, 1 lb. buttermilk 945 lbs. 

1.95 lbs. grain, 19.3 lbs, whey, 1 lb. buttermilk 950 lbs. 

2.6 lbs. grain, 11.5 lbs. whey, 1 lb. buttermilk 955 lbs. 

The results show that one pound of rye or barley is equal to 
twelve pounds of whey from centrifugal skim-milk cheese. We 
have already shown that one pound of rye or barley is equivalent 

1 Rept. 1887, p. 38. 



588 



Feeds and Feeding. 



to six pounds of skim milk. One pound of skim milk is there- 
fore equal to two pounds of whey. (660, 873) 

890. Quality of skim-milk and whey-fed pork. — Slaughter tests^ 
show the quality of skim-milk pork somewhat superior to that 
produced from whey, as indicated in the following table: 

Results of slaughter tests with pigs fed whey and skim milk — Copen- 
hagen Station. 





Skim 
milk. 


Whey. 


Shrinkage in slauglitering, per cent 


24.6 

73.0 
27.0 


24 9 


Percentage classification of carcasses. 
Class I 


48.0 


Class II 


44.0 


Class III 


8.0 









891. Rye compared with barley. — The average of 11 experi- 
ments,'^ with 110 animals, shows a daily gain of .865 pounds for 
barley- fed pigs and .873 pounds for those fed rye. These gains 
being practically equal show similar values for rye and barley 
as pig feeds. An examination of the carcasses at slaughtering 
time gave the following classification: 

Results icith barley and rye-fed pigs — Copenhagen Station. 



Per cent, dressed weight, 

Class I 

Class II 

Class III 



Barley fed. 



74 . 3 per cent. 



68.0 per cent. 
21.0 per cent. 
11.0 per cent. 



Rye-fed. 



75 per cent. 



63 per cent. 

34 per cent. 

3 per cent. 



The results indicate a practical equality between the two feeds 
for pork production. (177-8) 

While rye is shown to be of equal value with barley for pig 
feeding we will learn later (895) that its by-product, rye shorts, 
is very unsatisfactory for this purpose. 

892. Grain compared with oil cake. — Experiments' were con- 
ducted in 1887-88 on 12 estates with 406 animals in all, divided 

1 Kept. 1887, p. 52. 
* Ibid., p. 37. 
» Rept. 15, 1889. 



Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 



589 



into 77 lots, each containing at least 5 pigs. The experiments 
lasted from 65 to 140 days, averaging 110 days. Sunflower-seed 
cake, hemp -seed cake, palm- nut meal, peainit meal and blood 
bread were each fed against rye or barley. The oil cake was fed 
in connection with skim milk in some of the experiments, and with 
whey in others. The lots fed grain and oil cake received half 
their concentrates in the form of oil cake; those fed grain only, 
received skim milk or whey in addition. The averages of these 
extensive trials in which whey or barley meal was fed in oppo- 
sition to oil cakes are shown in the following table, which con- 
denses the results so that they may be easily compared by the 
student: 

Feeding various forms of oil cake in comparison with grain — Copen- 
hagen Station. 





Average daily 
gain per head. 




Grain. 


Grain and 
oil cakes. 


Avorasre 14 trials with oil cakps fed with milk 


Lbs. 

.87 
.85 


Lbs. 

.87 


Average 16 trials with oil cakes fed with whey 


.85 






Average of above trials 


.86 

.88 
.89 
.81 
.81 


.86 


Average 10 trials with sunflower-seed cake 


.89 


Avera^'e 6 trials with liemp-seecl cake 


.88 


Average 10 trials with palm-nut cake 


.82 


Average 10 trials with peanut cake 


.84 






Average of above trials 


.86 


.85 







These results prove conclusively, it would seem, that a pound 
of oil cake has no more value for pigs than a pound of rye or 
barley, no matter with what other substance or under what con- 
ditions it may be fed. (206) 

893. Slaughter tests of pigs fed in the preceding experiments.^ 
Sunflower-seed cake and hemp-seed cake fed in connection with 
skim milk produced a soft quality of pork, which would com- 
mand a lower price in the general market than that produced by 

1 Loc. cit. 



590 



Feeds and Feeding. 



the corresponding grain-fed lots. "When fed in connection with 
whey, the qnality of the pork compared favorably with that pro- 
duced from barley or rye. There is no evidence that peanut or 
palm-nut cake injured the quality of the i)ork when fed with 
either skim milk or whey. These points are shown in the fol- 
lowing table, which summarizes the results obtained at slaugh- 
tering time with some of the pigs fed in the trials reported in the 
preceding article: 

Average data at slaughtering time with pigs fed various forms of 
oil cake — Copenhagen Station. 



Feed. 



Suvfloiver-seed cake. 

Skim /Grain 

milk, t Grain and oil cake.. 

•'' \ Grain and oil cake.. 

Peanut cake. 

Skim (Grain..... 

milk. \ Grain and oil cake.. 

Whev /Grain....; 

•'' \ Grain and oil cake.. 

Hemp-seed cake. 

Skim /Grain 

milk, t Grain and oil cake. 

Whev /<^''ain 

^ ' \ Grain and oil oake. 

Palm-nut cake. 

Skim /Grain 

milk. \ Grain and oil cake. 

Whev I G^''^i^^ 

^' \ Grain and oil cake. 



Av. 
live 
wt. 



Lbs. 

hil 
161 
163 
162 



160 
162 
156 
156 



184 
178 
159 
1G2 



185 
178 
167 
174 



Shrink- 
age, 



Per ct. 

24.4 
25.3 
26.4 
26.5 



24.7 
23.5 
24.8 
24.9 



28.3 
28.9 
27.5 
29.2 



28.1 
29.6 
29.4 
29.4 



Av. 

thick- 
ness of 
pork. 



Inches. 

1.3 
1.3 
1.5 
1.4 



1.4 
1.3 
1.5 
1.4 



1.5 
1.4 
1.5 
1.4 



1.5 
1.5 
1.5 

1.6 



No. of pigs 
in class. 



12 



In experiments^ conducted in the years 1891-94, the same 
kinds of oil cake used in the preceding trials were compared with 
barley, but the ratio of barley to oil cake in these trials, instead 
of being 1 to 1, as in the first trials, was 1 to 2 or 2 to 1. In all 
the series one lot of pigs was fed barley alone, for the sake of com- 
parison. A small quantity of buttermilk and skim milk was also 



Kept. 30, 1895. 



Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 



591 



fed with the different rations. The gains made by the different 
lots were as follows: 

Later trials with feeding grain in comparison with oil cakes — Copen- 
hagen Station. 



Feed. 



Average weight at 
beginning. 



Bar- 
lev. 



I bar- 
ley, 
J oil 
cake. 



I bar- 
ley, 
ft oil 
cake. 



Daily gain. 



Bar- 
ley 



f bar- 
ley, 

low 
cake. 



i bar- 
ley, 
foil 

cake. 



Sunfloivcr-sccd cake. 

With skim milk, 4 trials '.. 

With whey, 2 trials 

Palm-nut 7neaL 

With whey, 1 trial.. 

Average of 3 trials with whey.. 
Averaj-eof 7 trials 



Lbs. 

70.6 
60.5 

71.2 
64.1 

07.8 



Lbs. 

71.6 
60.6 

73.2 
64.8 
68.7 



Lbs. 

70.1 
~6Q,A' 

72.2 
64!3 
67.6 



Lbs. 
1.15 

t.t:7 

1.23 
1.19 
1.17 



Lbs. 

1.12 
1721 

i.m 

1.20 
1.16 



Lbs. 



.01 
.13 



1.16 
1.14 
1.06 



These experiments in connection with those previonsly made 
show that the rations containing less than half the concentrates 
in the form of oil cake were nearly as effective as a pure grain 
ration, and that increasing the quantity of oil cake fed produced 
poorer results, the difference being greater when skim milk was 
fed than when feeding whey. When roots were fed in both 
rations the effect of the oil cake was still not so good, so far as 
gain in live weight goes, as in case of pure grain feeding. These 
results are of peculiar interest, since the higher protein content of 
the oil cakes would a priori indicate a higher feeding value for 
them than the cereals possess. In feeding trials with cows at the 
same Station (647) and elsewhere, oil cake has always been 
found superior to grain in nutritive value. They show that oil 
in feeds has not the high nutritive value with pigs assigned it by 
trials with the ruminants. While we accept these results and 
shoidd act upon them in the practical feeding of the pig, we 
await the studies of the investigators to show why oil in feeds is 
less valuable with this animal than with the cow. 

894. Rye or barley versus Indian corn. — In 1888-89, seven 
series of experiments ^ were made with 144 pigs, on 13 different 



Kept. 1890. 



592 



Feeds and Feeding. 



estates, in which Indian corn was compared with barley or rye. 
The grains were fed against one another in equal quantities by 
weight, with results given below: 

Trials with barley or rye fed in opposition to Indian corn — Copen- 
hagen Station. 





Average weight. 


Average gain per 
day. 




LotL 
Bar- 
ley or 
rye. 


Lot 

IL 
J bar- 
ley or 
rye, h 
corn. 


Lot 
III. 

Corn. 


LotL 
Bar- 
ley or 
rye. 


Lot 

IL 

^ bar- 
ley or 
rye, h 
corn. 


Lot 
III. 

Corn. 


Feed per day per head. 

3.61 lbs. grain, 9.7 lbs. skim milk, 
19.4 lbs. whey, 1 lb. buttermilk. 

Softness of pork^ points. 

No. of carcasses in highest grade. 
No. of carcasses in lowest grade... 


Jibs. 
79.9 


Lbs. 
79.9 


Lbs. 
79.9 


Lbs. 
1.32 


Lbs. 
1.36 


Lbs. 
1.35 








8 
1 


5 

7 


3 








10 













The gain made on corn was slightly higher than that made on 
either barley (857) or rye, and about equal to that made on a 
mixture of the two. The slaughter tests show that the shrinkage 
was practically the same for the three lots. Corn made the softest 
pork, and also gave the largest number of carcasses in the fourth, 
or lowest, grade. 

The experiments were continued during 1892-93. ^ Since the 
quality of the pork seemed inferior when corn was fed through- 
out the fattening period, experiments were made in which corn 
was fed until the pigs of the different lots weighed 120, 140, or 
160 pounds, after which barley was fed for grain until the close 
of the fattening period. (919) For comparison, one lot was fed 
barley and another corn exclusively, in each trial. Dairy refuse 
was given in addition in all cases. The grains were substituted, 
pound for pound, for one another in the rations fed the different 
lots. Eesults are available from five series of experiments with 
115 pigs in all, the trials lasting from 100 to 140 days. It was 
found that the lots fed corn all the time made somewhat heavier 



Rept. 1895. 



Danish Pig -feeding Experiments. 



593 



IDjains, the average daily increase being .04 pounds per head 
higher, as shown below: 

Feeding pigs on com, and finishing them with barley — Copenhagen 

Station. 



Av. wt. at beginning 

Av. daily gain, live weight . 



Barley 
only. 



Lbs. 

46 
1.10 



Corn to 
120 lbs. 



Lbs. 

49 
1.09 



Corn to 
140 lbs. 



Lbs. 

46 
1.14 



Corn to 
160 lbs. 



Lbs. 

45 
1.10* 



Corn 
only. 



Lbs. 

46 
1.14 



* Average for four trials. 
The tests and data obtained at slaughtering time furnished val- 
uable information concerning the quality of the pork produced, 
as summarized in the table below: 

Average results at slaughtering time of pigs fed barley or com — 
Copenhagen Station. 



Feed. 


Av. wt. 

at 
slaugh- 
tering. 


Shrink- 
age. 


Thick- 
ness of 
pork. 


Soft- 
ness of 
pork. 


Per cent, 
in class. 




I. 


IL 


III. 


IV. 


Barley all time 

Com till 120 lbs... 
Corn till 140 lbs... 
Corn till 160 lbs... 
Com all time 


Lbs. 

183 
181 
186 
183 
185 


Per cent. 

22.9 
22.0 
21.7 

22 2 

iili 


Inches. 

1.3 
1.5 
1.5 
1.5 
1.5 


Points. 

1.4 

1.6 
2.0 
2.3 
2.7 


57 
28 
2-5 
45 
29 


35 
50 
58 
30 
33 


4 

22 
17 
2-5 
24 


4 
14' 



Exclusive barley feeding gave pork of the highest quality, (178) 
while exclusive corn feeding produced a poor quality. The pork 
increased in softness the longer the pigs were fed corn, the lowest 
quality resulting where corn was fed all the time. (153) 

895. Grain compared with rye shorts. ^ — In comparing rye and 
barley, or rye alone, with rye shorts in three series of experi- 
ments, the grain alone always produced better results than equal 
mixtures of grain and rye shorts, and these mixtures were again 
better than rye shorts alone. The daily gains made were .77 
pounds for barley or rye alone, .70 pounds for grain and rye shorts 
mixed half and half, .61 pounds for rye shorts only, in one series 



1 Kept. 19, 1890. 
38 



594 



Feeds and Feeding. 



of trials; in another, 1.22 pounds, 1.20 pounds, and 1.08 pounds, 
respectively. The third series cannot be used, because the pigs 
fed rye shorts became sick. The quality of the pork produced 
where rye shorts were fed was poor, especially where all rye shorts 
were given, as will be seen in the table below: 

Quality of porJc made when feeding grain and rye shorts — Copen- 
hagen Station. 



Feed. 


Wt. at 

slaugh- 
tering. 


Shrink- 
ago. 


Thick- 
ness of 
pork. 


Soft- 
ness of 
pork. 


Class. 




I. 


II. 


IIL 


IV. 


Grain ( rye and 
barley) 


Lbs. 
162 

159 
145 


Lbs. 
24.2 

24.9 
26.6 


Inches, 
1.5 

1.4 
1.3 


Points. 
1.7 

2.5 . 
3.7 


8 

1 
1 


6 

4 

1 


7 
2 


1 


Half grain, half 
rye shorts 


7 


Rye shorts 


16 







The number of points for softness of pork increased rapidly 
with the feeding of rye shorts, and the classification of the car- 
casses showed that a poor quality of pork was produced when 
this feed was given. 

896. Wheat bran compared with rye and barley. — Trials with 
wheat bran compared with barley or rye for pigs^ were conducted 
during 1890-92 on five different farms and included 115 pigs, the 
trials lasting 112 days. Wheat bran was fed against rye on 
some farms and against barley on others, skim milk or whey 
being fed in addition. In four out of five trials the largest average 
gain was made by the lots fed grain, closely followed by those re- 
ceiving a mixture of five parts barley or rye and seven parts wheat 
bran for every ten parts of grain fed the other lots. Bran alone 
did not produce as good results as a mixture of equal parts of 
grain and bran. The one-sided bran feeding in several instances 
caused sickness among the pigs, while none occurred in the other 
lots. Wheat bran has an appreciably lower nutritive value than 
barley or rye for pig feeding. In scoring the carcasses, the pork 
produced on wheat bran was found to be of poorer quality than 
that produced on grain, and shrank more in dressing, although 
the results were not so unfavorable with wheat bran as were the 
previous experiments with rye shorts. (175, 177-8, 855) 



» Bept. 26, 1892. 



Danish Pig-feeding Uxperiments. 



595 



897. Grain compared with boiled potatoes. — Three series of ex- 
periments ^ were made to test the comparative value of cooked 
potatoes with grain, when both were fed in connection with skim 
milk or whey. Four pounds of potatoes were fed against one 
pound of grain, and the gains made were practically the same. 
Four pounds of boiled pota,toes should thus be considered equal 
to one pound of grain in pig feeding. The quality of the pork 
produced from potato feeding was good and did not differ appre- 
ciably from that of lots differently fed. 

898. Comparative feeding value of mangels^ and grain. ^ — For 
the purpose of determining the comparative value of mangels and 
grain as feeds for pigs the trials reported below were conducted. 
All lots received skim milk or whey in addition to the grain and 
roots, except Lots E and F, to which an equivalent of additional 
roots was given. The average daily gains are shown below: 

Average daily gain of pigs fed grain and mangels — Copenha/jen 

Station. 





10 lbs. roots = 
1 lb. of grain. 


8 lbs. roots = 
1 lb. of grain. 




Grain. 


Roots. 


Grain. 


Roots. 


Lots A, B, C and D 


.76 lbs. 


.83 lbs. 
.86 lbs. 


.85 lbs. 


.86 lbs. 


Lots E and F 


891b9. 











The above shows that ten pounds of mangels were more than 
equal, and eight pounds about equal, to one pound of grain in 
these trials. 

The quality of the pork produced by the different lots was very 
satisfactory; even where one-fourth of the daily feed was given 
in the form of roots, no deleterious effect was noticed. (3^8) 

899. Grain compared with beets of different sugar content. — A 
preliminary feeding experiment'' with beets of different sugar con- 
tent was made in 1890 to ascertain their comparative feeding val- 
ues. Mangels containing 12.71 per cent, dry matter and 8.93 per 

1 Rept. 19, 1890. 

2 In the Danish experiments all roots were fed uncooked, unless other- 
wise noted, and either whole or sliced, generally the latter. (316, 658, 
866} 

3 Rept. 1890. •• Rept. 26, 1892. 



596 Feeds and Feeding. 

cent, sugar were fed against fodder beets containing 19.86 per cent. 
dry matter and 13.8 per cent, sugar, or against barley. The 
experiment included 25 pigs averaging 79 pounds each, and 
lasted 70 days. 

The indications were that for pigs one pound of barley had a 
feeding value equal to six to eight pounds of mangels, or four to 
eight pounds of fodder beets. 

In experiments 1 during 1891-92, lots including 204 pigs were 
fed four kinds of roots in addition to dairy refuse and grain. The 
roots used were: (1) Eckendorf mangels, containing 11 per cent, 
dry matter and 6.7 per cent, sugar; (2) Elvetham mangels, con- 
taining 13.6 per cent, dry matter and 8.9 per cent, sugar; (3) fod- 
der sugar beets, containing 16.5 per cent, dry matter and 10.9 
per cent, sugar; (4) sugar beets, containing 21.2 per cent, dry 
matter and 14 per cent, sugar. The lots fed barley only, made 
the largest gain, closely followed by those half of whose grain 
was replaced by roots in the following ratio: For 1 pound of 
biirley was substituted 7.5 pounds of Eckendorf mangels, 6.5 
pounds of Elvetham mangels, 5 pounds of fodder beets and 4 
pounds of sugar beets. These quantities of the different kinds of 
roots proved nearly equivalent in feeding value. The authorities 
conclude that about 40 per cent, of the daily ration of the pig 
may be advantageously made up of roots. The data secured at 
slaughtering time led to the conclusion that the feeding of roots 
to the extent practiced in these experiments produced pork of 
a quality fully equal to that resulting from grain feeding. (320) 

900. Carrots compared with mangels. — In 1892-94, ^ experi- 
ments were conducted on nine different estates with 893 pigs, 
divided into 175 lots. It was found in the comparative trials 
that carrots and mangels containing equal quantities of dry mat- 
ter had similar values in pig feeding; in other words, the amount 
of dry matter in roots is of importance rather than the total 
weight or the quantity of sugar contained. (317) 

901. Turnips compared with whey. — When feeding barley and 
whey to pigs, turnips were substituted for part of the whey. In 
two experiments^ with 30 animals, barley and whey gave an in- 

i Kept. 26, 1892. » Kept. 30, 1895. ^ Ibid. 



Danish Fig-feeding Experiments. 



597 



crease of 1.08 pounds daily per head, while turnips gave only .96 
pounds, showing that whey had a higher feeding value, pound 
for pound, than turnips. (3J9) 

902. Grain compared with bfood bread. — Blood bread prepared 
from blood and barley meal, baked in an oven the same as ordi- 
nary bread, was compared ^ with grain in two trials with 40 
animals, lasting 138 and 120 days, respectively. Four lots of 
pigs were fed grain and four lots blood bread. Two lots in each 
trial received skim milk and two whey in addition to the con- 
centrated feed. The results are as follows: 

BemUs of feeding Mood bread in comparison with grain — Copenhagen 

Station. 





Average weight. 


Av. daily gain 
per head. 


Feed per head per day. 


Grain 

(rye, or 
rye and 
barley). 


Blood 
bread. 


Grain 
fed. 


Blood 

bread 

fed. 


1.64 lbs. cone, feed, 15.5 lbs. milk 

2.46 lbs. cone, feed, 10.6 lbs. milk 


Lbs. 

58.6 
58.4 


Lbs. 

58.4 
58.4 


Lbs. 

.98 
.97 


Lbs. 

.74 
.65 


Average 






.98 
1.00 
1.13 


.70 


1.77 lbs. cone, feed, 20.6 lbs. whey, 
1.4 lbs. skim milk 


61.6 
61.6 


61.4 
61.4 


.79 


2.65 lbs. cone, feed, 10.8 lbs. whey, 
1 lb. skim milk 


.87 






Average 






1.07 
1.02 


.83 


Average of both trials 






.76 











The blood bread contained more water than was supposed when 
the experiments were started. Its average percentage chemical 
composition was as follows: 

Water, 59.6; protein, 20; starch, 16.1; fat, 4; cellulose, 2.4; ash, 1.5. 

The trials showed the blood bread decidedly inferior to rye 
or barley when fed in connection with skim milk or whey. It 
was concluded that had it contained less water different results 
might have been secured. It is possible, however, that baking 
the bread may have lowered its feeding value for pigs, the same as 



1 Kept. 15, 1889. 



698 



Feeds and Feeding. 



does cooking feed. A study at slaughtering time of the carcasses 
of the pigs fed as described on the preceding page gave the re- 
sults shown in the following table: 

Average data at slaughtering time with hogs fed blood bread and 
grain — Copenhagen Station. 



Feed. 



Grain with milk 

Blood bread with 

milk 

Grain with whey 

Blood bread with 

whey 



Aver- 
age live 
weight 



Lbs. 

192 

182 

173 

158 



Shrink- 
age. 



Lbs. 

26.0 
32.2 

26.4 

29.2 



Aver- 
age 
thick- 
ness of 
pork. 



Inches. 

1.6 
1.3 

1.4 

1.2 



Softness 
of pork 



Points. 

1.7 
3.4 

2.8 

4.6 



No. of carcasses 
in class. 



I. 

7 
10 

7 

5 


IL 

3 


IIL 


IV. 










"? 






5 



The results show that the quality of the pork produced by the 
lot fed blood bread was on the whole inferior to that produced 
by the grain- fed lot. 

In regard to shrinkage, and the quality of pork as shown by 
the number of points for softness for the different lots, the live 
weights of the lots fed blood bread and milk were more in accord 
with the demands of the market than those of the correspond- 
ing lots fed grain. This explains why all animals in this lot 
were placed in Class I. Besides yielding soft pork with consider- 
able shrinkage, the blood bread showed a tendency to produce too 
thin an external layer of fat, making what the pork-packers call 
a ''skinny" carcass. (338) 

n. Various Problems in Pig Feeding. 

903. Shelter for pigs. — Two experiments^ were made with 
eight pigs each, separated into two lots, each pig receiving the 
following feed daily: 6.2 pounds skim milk; 6.5 pounds whey f 
2.2 pounds rye, barley, corn and peanut meal, mixed. 

Lot I ran in the open yard during the day, while Lot n was 



Kept. 10, 1887. 



Danish Pig-feeding Experiments. 



599 



kept indoors. The experiment lasted 130 days, with the average 
weights and gains shown in the table: 



Eesults of shelter tests with 


pigs — 


Copenhagen Station. 




Experiment I. 


Experiment II. 






Av. wt. 
at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Av. 

daily 
gain. 


Av. wt. 
at be- 
gin- 
ning. 


Av. 

daily 
gain. 


Av. daily 

gain, 

both 

trials. 


Pigs kept indoors 


Lbs. 

64.5 
64.0 


Lbs. 

.80 
.91 


Lbs. 

63.8 
62.5 


Lbs. 

.81 
.87 


Lbs, 

.80 


Pigs kept outdoors 


.89 







The number of animals in the trial is too small to allow gen- 
eralization, but the result favors exercise for light pigs. (838) 

904. Effect of addition of water to feed. — Three experiments* 
were conducted with 68 pigs, the trials continuing 60, 120 and 
160 days, respectively. In Experiment I the skim milk and 
buttermilk fed Lot A was diluted with twice its volume of water; 
Lot B received one-half this quantity of water. In Experiments 
II and III as much water was added to the milk of Lot A as 
there was skim milk. Lot B was allowed water at will, supplied 
separately. The feed eaten and gains are shown in the table: 

Eesults of watering the feed of pigs — Copenhagen Station. 





Skim 
milk. 


Butter- 
milk. 




Grain. 


Water. 


Av. 

wt. 


Daily 

gains 
made. 


Expt. I, Lot A... 
Expt. I, Lot B... 


Lbs. 

3.0 
3.0 


Lbs. 

3.0 
3.0 


Lbs. 

8.0 
8.0 


Lbs. 

2.3 
2.3 


Lbs. 

12.0 
6.0 


Lbs. 

127.8 
129.0 


Lbs. 

.73 
.71 


Expt. II, Lot A.. 
Expt. II, Lot B. 


14.5 
14.5 


1.0 
1.0 




2.6 
2.3 


14.5 

2.6* 


72.7 
72.2 


.92 




1.02 






Expt. Ill, Lot A 
Expt. Ill, Lot B 


10.5 
10.5 


1.0 
1.0 




1.3 
1.3 


10.5 
1.0* 


27.0 
29.3 


.68 




.67 







* Water ad libitum. 
The average of the three trials shows a daily gain of . 78 pounds 
for Lot A, getting water with their feed, and .80 pounds for Lot 



1 Kept. 10, 1887. 



GOO 



Feeds and Feeding. 



B, getting less water. As the results are practically equal, it 
caunot be said that the addition of water to the skim milk was a 
disadvantage in these trials. 

905. Winter and summer feeding compared. — Pig-feeding ex- 
periments conducted by the Copenhagen Station^ since 1887 have 
been summarized with a view of obtaining information concern- 
ing the amount of feed required for 100 pounds of growth in 
winter and in summer. In all trials the skim milk, whey, roots, 
etc., fed have been reduced to their grain equivalent as deter- 
mined by the various trials. The animals were separated into 
three groups, according to their live weight. The following aver- 
age results as to feed eaten for one pound of increased live weight 
were obtained: 

Feed consumed for one hundred pounds increase ivith pigs in winter 
and in summer — Copenhagen Station. 



Period of 

growth and 

average weight 


No. of experiments 


Feed eaten (grain 

equivalent) per 

day per head. 


Feed (grain equiv- 
alent) for 100 
lbs. gain. 


of pigs. 


Winter. 


Summer. 


Winter. 


Summer. 


Winter. 


Summer. 


35 to 75 lbs 

75 to 115 lbs 

115 to 155 lbs 


10 
48 

47 


17 
39 
43 


Lbs. 

2.66 
3.96 
5.26 


Lbs. 

2.65 
3.92 
5.2.5 


Lbs. 

371 
446 
516 


Lbs. 

346 
397 
4.57 


Totals and 
averages ... 


100 


99 


3.96 


3.94 


444 


400 



The table gives the average results of 100 experiments in win- 
ter and 99 in summer. Since each trial included from 20 to 30 
animals, or more, we have the average results obtained with 
feeding at least 2,500 animals. The feed for one pound of gain, 
given in ' ' totals and averages, ' ' is the arithmetical mean of each 
set of three figures in the different columns, the data for each 
period of growth being considered of equal value without regard 
to the number of experiments included in each, since all the 
groups contain an ample number of experiments to give a true 
expression of the feed requirements of the animals embraced 
within each period. 

* Rept. 30, 1895. 



Danish Fig-feeding Experiments, 



601 



We note that the pigs ate only a little more feed in winter than 
3u summer, and that it required 44 pounds or 11 per cent, more 
feed in winter than in summer to produce 100 pounds of gain. 
The figures given doubtless express the feed requirements of pigs 
under ordinary conditions in Denmark. The climate of Denmark 
is tempered by cool summers and is not excessively cold in win- 
ter. The average temperatures observed during the trials are 
i^iAcn in the following table, the figures being for the air, stable 
and feed: 

Temperatures recorded in pig-feeding trials — CopenTiagen Station. 





No. of experi- 
ments. 


Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit 


Period of 
growth. 


Winter. 


Summer. 


Winter. 


Summer. 




Air. 


Stable. 


Feed. 


Air. 


Stable. 


Feed. 


35 to 75 lbs.... 

75toll5lbs... 

115 to 155 lbs... 


9 
36 
25 


17 
35 
24 


35.6 
34.3 
36.0 


47.7 
48.7 
49.1 


50.2 
51.1 
52.9 


58.8 
59.2 
56.1 


61.2 
61.2 
59.9 


59.4 
59.9 
58.3 



The table shows there was an average diiference of only 20 or 
25 degrees Fahr. between the summer and winter temperature 
when the experiments were conducted. These difierences show 
n narrower range than prevails in most parts of the United States. 

906. Light versus heavy feeding. — In two series of experiments 
with 60 animals in all, i the influence of the intensity of feeding 
on gain was made a special object of investigation. One experi- 
ment lasted 120 days, the other 210 days. The feeds used were 
biirley, buttermilk, skim milk and whey. 

Results from heavy and light feeding — Copenhagen Station. 



Feeding. 



Light 

Medimn , 

Heavy 

» Bept. 30, 1895 



Grain fed 
daily. 


Av. wt. of 

pigs at be- 
ginning of 
exp't. 


Gain per 
day. 


Lbs. 
3.61 

4.2;^ 

4.51 


Lbs. 

34.9 
3.5.0 
3,5.1 


Lbs. 

.92 
1.07 
1.12 



Grain for 

100 lbs. 

gain. 



Lbs. 

391 
397 
404 



602 



Feeds and Feeding. 



These results indicate a tendency toward a poorer utiliza- 
tion of the feed in the heavier feeding; the differences obtained 
are not, however, so great as in the case of winter and summer 
feeding. 

907. Feed required for 100 pounds of gain. — In the following 
table 1 the grain or its equivalent required for 100 pounds of 
gain is reported for 355 animals in 16 experiments. These trials 
were with pigs ranging from 35 to 315 pounds, live weight. The 
figures given in the second line of the table are the arithmetical 
means of all figures for pigs coming within the range of live 
weight given in each column. Seven experiments supplying 
additional data for the five intermediate periods are given in the 
third line. The results of these important investigations are 
summarized in the following table: 

Grain or equivalent fed to produce 100 pounds gain with pigs — 
Copenhagen Station. 





Average weight of pigs in lots — 




I. 

35-75 
lbs. 


II. 

75-115 
lbs. 


III. 

115-155 
lbs. 


IV. 

155-195 
lbs. 


V. 

195-235 
lbs. 


VI. 

235-275 
lbs. 


VII. 

275-315. 
lbs. 


No. of experiments 

Av. feed required, lbs.. 

Av. feed required in 
seven comparative 
experiments, lbs 


3 
376 


10 
435 

437 


13 

466 

465 


15 

513 

499 


14 

540 

543 


11 

614 

624 


3 
639 











We notice a 'steady increase in the feed required to produce 
100 pounds of gain with increasing weight of the animals. Pigs 
weighing 275 pounds required nearly twice as much feed for 100' 
pounds of increase as those weighing from 35 to 75 pounds. 
(845) 

908. Barrows compared with sows. — The following table, ^ 
which includes data obtained from 1,216 animals, gives informa- 
tion concerning the comparative fattening qualities of barrows 
and sows. 

Although data from a large number of animals were employed 
in the computation, the talkie shows no practical difference iu 

1 Rept. 30, 1895. » Loc. cit. 



Danish Fig-feeding Experiments. 



603 



the results obtained for the two sexes as regards either gain, 
shrinkage, or quality of carcass. 

Comparative fattening qualities of harrows and sows — Copenhagen 

Station. 





Barrow. 


Sow. 


No. of animals 
in trials. 




Barrow. 


Sow. 


Av. wt. per head at beginning, lbs. 

Av. wt. per head at close, lbs 

Animals dropped during expts 


54 
167 


55 
165 


586 
575 
11 
575 
364 


630 

613 

17 


Daily gain per head, lbs 


.987 
22.6 

1.5 

1.4 
33.3 

44 

33 

20 

3 


.975 
23.2 

1.4 

1.5 
33.7 

56 

29 

12 

3 


613 


Shrinkage, per cent 


373 


Thickness of pork, inches 




Softness of pork, points 






Liength of body, inches 






Percentage classification: 
Class I 


160 
120 

72 
12 


209 


Class II 


108 


Class III 


43 


Class IV 


13 







909. Breed tests. — Six essentially pure breeds of swine, ^ in- 
cluding 120 animals in all, were compared, the trials lasting 148 
to 168 days each, with the following average daily gains: 

Results of breed tests — Copenhagen Station. 



Breed. 


Average weight at begin- 
ning of trials. 


Average daily gain 
per head. 




I. 


II. 


III. 


I. 


IL 


IIL 


Vendsyssel 


Lbs. 

20.5 
20.3 
19.9 


Lbs. 
30.4 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 

.99 
.91 
.94 


Lbs. 
.94 


Lbs. 


Native 


19.9 


92 


Hoist ebro 








Tamworth 


30.2 




.97 




Poland-China 




19.8 




.93 















The animals of the native breeds made the poorest gain, and 
the Vendsyssel and Tamworth the best, but the differences were 
small. Neither did the data obtained at slaughtering time show 
any appreciable difference between the breeds as to value of car- 
cass, except that the Poland-China breed proved superior to the 
native, on account of the greater hardness of the pork. (835) 



Kept. 15, 1889. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

FEEDmG AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE — EFFECT OF FEED ON 
THE CAECASS OF THE PIG. 

I, Feeding and Management. 

910. Breeding stock. — In the successful management of breed- 
ing stock the prime requisite is ample pasture, that the animals 
may be maintained in the open air and sunshine, away from pens 
and yards, during as large a portion of the year as possible. 
Eoaming in pastures covered with nutritious clovers and grasses, 
the pigs will develop healthy bodies. The pasture will not alone 
suffice for nutriment and should be supplemented by foods espe- 
cially adapted to bone and muscle building. Pigs of the larger 
breeds should receive sufficient nutriment to insure about one 
pound of growth per day, in order to reach the standard weight 
of 300 pounds when one year old. (841) 

The boar should be kept on pasture as much as possible, and 
when confined should be provided with a large lot for exercise. 
After the growth of the framework is completed this animal 
should receive only sufficient feed to continue in fair condition, 
all tendency to grossness being avoided. It is especially imj)or- 
tant to supply coarse feeds, as roots, whole oats, bran, and boiled 
chaffed clover hay. 

911. Feed for the brood sow. — The feed for the sow before far- 
rowing should be nutritious but not concentrated. Heavy, con- 
centrated feed stuffs may be extended or given volume by using 
bran, which serves well for this purpose, and roots, which are 
much relished, and by supplying chaffed clover or alfalfa hay 
softened with boiling water. Some corn may be fed, but meaLs 
rich in protein — oats, peas, middlings and barley — should supply 
most of the nutriment. Breeders differ in their management ot 
sows before farrowing, some insisting that they be held in thin 
flesh, while others would have them in high condition. They 
will pro^^e satisfactory when in good flesh, i^rovided it is put on 



Feeding and Management of Swine. 605 

under proper regulations as to character of feed and amount 
of exercise. As farrowing-time approaches let the feed be sloppy 
and limited in quantity. Any tendency to costiveness should be 
overcome by feeding bran, oil meal, roots, or other feeds of a cor- 
rective character. For two or three days after farrowing supply 
only a limited quantity of feed. A thin, warm slop made of mid- 
dlings, oatmeal with a very little oil meal, poured a little at 21^ 
time into the feeding trough, will quench the thirst of the new 
mother and answer all requirements. Eating her young, an act 
quite common with brood sows, is unnatural, and reflects upon 
the management of the feeder, indicating that feed and exercise 
have not been properly regulated. 

912. Importance of exercise. — Sows carrying much flesh, made 
while confined in small pens, will prove at best unsatisfactory 
breeders. In summer, exercise is easily secured by the use of 
pasture, but winter conditions at the North are so adverse to out- 
door life of the pig that much ingenuity is called for on the 
part of the herdsman to attain the desired end. Sows will gain 
exercise in winter, when the weather is not too severe, if turned 
into sheltered yards where horses and cattle will not annoy them. 
If litter from the stable is thrown in the yard, exercise will be 
gained while working this over in search of waste grains. Some 
exercise can also be forced by scattering grains of corn or oats, 
preferably the latter, very thinly over the feeding floor. In 
gathering the grains the sows will be kept upon their feet for some 
time. If exercise can be secured in no other way, the sows 
should be driven for some time each day by the herdsman along 
a lane or roadway or about the yard. 

913. Feeding sow and pigs. — If all goes well at farrowing- 
time, the feed may be gradually increased after two or three 
days, with the increasing flow of milk and the growing demands 
of the pigs, until a full ration is supplied. Brood sows should 
be heavily fed, for the gains of young pigs are made at low cost 
for feed consumed. (831) Good brood sows with large litters 
will usually fall off in weight despite the best of care and feed, but 
such decrease is no reflection upon the skill of the feeder. In 
feeding a brood sow the herdsman can draw upon all feeds at his. 



606 Feeds and Feeding. 

command. Middlings, ground oats and corn meal are particu- 
larly useful and should be liberally supplied; some bran, ground 
peas, barley and otlier grains will also prove helpful. The by- 
pi'oducts of the dairy — skim milk and buttermilk — are always 
in place and may be used to almost any extent. Cooked roots, 
potatoes or pumpkins with a liberal admixture of meal form an 
acceptable ration. 

At farrowing-time, as soon as the young pigs have drawn their 
tirst sustenance, it is well to at once separate them from the dam, 
placing them near by in a chaff-lined box or barrel. Sows which 
have been properly handled before farrowing will not usually re- 
sist such separation. Here the pigs are safe from harm, and the 
attendant can pass them to the dam at intervals of a few hours 
for nourishment. Mature sows are often so clumsy that unless 
some precaution is taken they will kill their young by lying upon 
them. After two or three days the pigs are sufficiently strong 
and active to be entirely given over to the care of the dam. 
Pigs often injure the teats or udders of the sow while sucking, 
because of sharp teeth. Their mouths should be examined and 
the injurious members filed or broken off — a simple operation. 

When two or three weeks old, pigs will take a little nourish- 
ment provided for them in a separate trough, which should be 
located at a convenient point in pen or lot accessible to the pigs 
but not to the dam. At first, place only a pint or two of feed in 
the trough, and when this is eaten give more. Skim milk will 
be the most relished, but in its absence a thin porridge of mid- 
dlings or sieved ground oats with a little oil meal will prove sat- 
isfactory. Soaked grains of corn scattered over the feeding floor 
will keep the young things busy and on their feet, getting exercise 
while securing nourishment. The pigs should be encouraged to 
eat as much as possible from the side trough. 

914. Exercise for young pigs. — Well-nurtured young pigs often 
become very fat, and many die unless abundant exercise is pro- 
vided. If sufficient exercise cannot be given, danger can in part 
be averted by reducing the feed supply, though by this growth 
is more or less checked. In the absence of more natural exercise, 
the herdsman should turn the pigs out of doors two or three 



Feeding and Management of Swine. 607 

times a day and drive them about tlie yard for a time. Selle^ 
describes a means of exercise for winter pigs as follows: Wagon 
loads of sods are placed in the cellar in the fall. In winter these 
sods, with bits of meat scrap or cracklings added, are thrown into 
the pens, to be worked over by the young pigs. In searching for 
cracklings or scraps in the sods the pigs get exercise by rooting 
as well as some feed. 

Upon the first appearance of scouring or other ailment, the sup- 
ply of food should be reduced and the diet changed if possible. 
Carefully remove all excrement and change the animals to new 
quarters if they can be provided. 

915. Weaning the pigs. — Pigs are generally weaned when from 
seven to ten weeks old. This is best accomplished by first re- 
moving the two strongest members of the littev to a separate pen, 
and after two or three days taking away others, always choosing 
the most vigorous, until all are removed. Under this practice the 
milk flow of the dam will gradually diminish until it ceases. 
Many breeders allow pigs to wean themselv^es, — a result reached 
without difficulty where they are liberally supplied with palata- 
ble nourishment at a side trough. When the pigs are weaned 
they should be placed in groups of not over twenty, care being 
taken that the members in each group are the same size. Where 
large numbers of pigs of varying sizes range together, the weaker 
ones are at a disadvantage at the feed trough and are liable to 
permanent injury from lack of feed and the rough treatment they 
receive. 

916. Feeding shotes. — Under good management, the period be- 
tween weaning and fattening the pig is bridged without difficulty. 
First, let this animal be kept upon natural earth, having the 
freedom of the pasture as long as possible. There is no better 
place for the growing pig intended for either breeding or fatten- 
ing than a wood-lot of mixed herbage or a pasture carpeted with 
blue grass, clover or alfalfa. Pigs should wear no rings in their 
noses unless much rooting is done, for this cruel restriction works 
injury to the animal in several ways. While on pasture, the 
shote should still receive feed possessing bulk and carrying a 

1 Wis. Farmers' Institute Bui., 1894. 



G08 Feeds and Feeding. 

liberal supply of protein for muscle building and asli for the bones. 
If these are amply supplied, some corn may be fed without harm. 
The feeder should aim to keep the pig steadily increasing in 
weight from one-half to one pound per day, according to the size 
of the animal. (830) 

917. Fattening the pig. — Pigs are now prepared for market at-all 
ages and the feeder should be governed by local requirements. 
A pig which has been reared on pasture supplemented with feed- 
ing stuffs rich in protein and ash can be rapidly and economically 
fitted for the market. Having been supplied with nutritious, 
cooling grasses and other plants of the field, the digestive tract 
of this animal becomes ample in size, healthy, active, and easily 
able to digest large quantities of feed, the whole system being in 
condition to assimilate the nutriment supplied and utilize it to 
the fullest extent. 

n. Feed for Swine. 

918. Feeding corn. — In this country Indian corn must continue 
the common feeding stuff for swine. Because it is rich in carbo- 
hydrates and fat and low in protein and ash, the si^ecial function 
of this grain in pig feeding is the production of fat. ( 154) Hav- 
ing a proper knowledge of its composition and limitations, the 
feeder is in position to wisely use this great cereal. For breed- 
ing stock, corn should constitute not over half the ration at any 
time, the amount being smallest with young animals. As the body 
increases in size and nears maturity, the demand for protein and 
ash becomes less, and the proportion of corn to other grain can 
be gradually increased, until during the fattening stage the ration 
may, if desired, consist almost wholly of this grain. 

Whether corn should be fed whole or as meal depends upon 
circumstances. (848) If the kernels are so hard as to cause sore 
mouths, thereby preventing easy mastication, the grain should 
be ground. If no trouble arises from this source, the utility of 
grinding hinges on the relative cost of grain and grinding. We 
have seen (848) that some grain is saved by reduction to meal, 
and the feeder can easily estimate whether he should incur 
the extra expense of grinding. Where grinding is not possible 



Feeding and Management of Swine. 609 

hard corn may be prepared for feeding by soaking the grains. 
Ear corn and shelled corn can be satisfactorily fed to fattening 
pigs upon a feeding floor of matched lumber, swept clean each 
day. Corn meal should always be soaked with water before 
feeding, the dry meal being unpalatable. Remembering that 
feeds in combination are better than the same feeds given singly, 
the prudent stockman will provide some complementary feed for 
pigs getting corn, even though the proportion of the secondary 
feed be small. (894) 

919. Demand for leaner pork. — Consumers at home and abroad 
are calling for leaner pork, and the feeder should cater to market 
requirements. The demand can be met by using more protein- 
rich feeds, with less corn, during the growth of the pig, and 
especially by shortening the fattening period. Feeding the by- 
products of milling, oats, barley, or the waste products of the 
dairy, with corn, the fattening period not being unduly pro- 
longed, produces pork which will easily meet the requirements 
of the most discriminating market. (894) 

920. Why lard rules low in price. — Millions of barrels of mineral 
oil are now obtained yearly from the oil wells, and an enormous 
quantity of vegetable oil is produced from the cotton seed. 
The combined effect of these two articles is to limit the use of 
animal fats to the dining-table, whUe formerly they served for 
both lubricants and illuminants as well as for human food. The 
introduction and general use of the oils named has brought 
about one of the greatest economic changes of recent times. In 
this change we have an explanation of the low prices ruling for 
lard and tallow. Despite the low price for animal fats, con- 
sumers are calling for still less fat in pork, or at least a larger 
proportion of lean to fat. So long as oil can be secured from the 
earth and from the cotton seed, we cannot hope for high prices 
for lard or other animal fats. With these conditions confronting 
us, there seems no alternative but to produce more lean and less 
fat pork. 

921. Wheat. — We have seen (851) that wheat divides honors 
with corn in its ability to produce gain with pigs, and because it 
contains more protein and ash it comes nearer fulfilling the re- 

89 



610 Feeds and Feeding. 

quirements of an all-around feed. Wheat is mucli superior to 
corn for young pigs and sliotes. (167, 802) The flesh of wheat- 
fed pigs is considered very satisfactory, generally carrying less 
fat than that from corn- fed animals. Because the grains are 
small and hard, wheat should always be reduced to meal before it 
is fed. Soaked wheat has proved unsatisfactory with many feed- 
ers. As we have seen, (852) wheat and corn meal in combina- 
tion give better gains than either separately. 

922. Middlings. — As a feed for swine at all periods of their 
development, middlings stand pre-eminent. Because it con- 
tains much protein and ash and is not loaded with crude-fiber 
like bran, this feeding stuff is particularly suited to the nourish- 
ment of very young pigs, ranking next to the by-products of the 
dairy for that purpose. (107) Middlings serve admirably with 
corn for feeding pigs during the fattening period. Like other 
milling by-products, middlings are said to produce soft pork, and 
therefore should never be fed alone, but always with corn, barley 
or other grains. 

923. Bran. — This part of the wheat grain carries much protein 
and mineral matter, but its fibrous, chaffy character renders it 
unfit for the digestive apparatus of the young pig, which has but 
a limited capacity. (896) Middlings rather than bran should be 
fed to young pigs, but as they increase in size some bran may 
be fed with advantage, especially where it is desirable to add 
volume to the feed. Bran may be fed with good results to breed- 
ing stock and to a limited extent to fattening swine, the amount 
in the latter case being restricted, lest the volume of the feed 
be too much increased. Harris^ recommends that bran be sup- 
plied to pigs in a separate trough, where they can eat it at will. 

924. Barley. — Judging from the EurojDean standard, barley 
leads the cereals in the quality of jjork produced. (894) In 
quantity of product returned from feeding a given weight of 
grain it yields to corn. (857, 894) Because consumers are grow- 
ing more critical, the pig feeder should study the uses of barley 
in the feeding pen that he may profit by using it whenever op- 
portunity offers. Barley flourishes in the Western states, and in 

» The Pig, p. 253. 



Feeding and Management of Swine. 611 

conjunction with alfalfa may prove instrumental in turning many- 
sections into profitable centers of pork production. This becomes 
all the more a certainty because consumers are learning to appre- 
ciate the higher grades of pork. 

925. Peas. — Where this plant flourishes, farmers will find peas 
an excellent feed for swine. Because of the large amount of pro- 
tein they contain peas can be used with advantage in feeding 
young pigs, shotes, and in the production of lean pork. Farmers 
living north of the corn belt may find pork production still prof- 
itable through the proper use of peas. For feeding swine, pea3 
should be ground, and, because of the high protein content and 
the heavy character of the meal they make, they should always 
be fed in conjunction with corn, barley, or other cereals. (860) 

926. Dairy by-products. — No materials are more generally use- 
ful in all stages of swine feeding than skim milk and buttermilk. 
They should be supplied only in limited quantity to brood sows 
before farrowing; after farrowing the limit need scarcely be set. 
As trials show, (869) the best returns are secured when not over 
three pounds of milk are fed with each pound of meal in the 
ration. Feeding trials have also shown (108) that skim milk 
favors the development of muscle and builds the strongest bones. 
Cooke's trials (871) indicate that sour milk has a high feeding 
value with pigs. Buttermilk, when not diluted with washings 
from the creamery, is as valuable as skim milk for pigs. As a 
complementary feed corn meal stands first, since it is rich in car- 
bohydrates, while the milk furnishes protein and ash, the bone 
and muscle building elements. Breeders of pure-bred swine will 
find dairy by-products of the highest utility in producing pigs of 
model form and strong bone. (See Chapter VI.) 

927. Clover hay. — An omniverous feeder by nature, the pig 
suffers seriously when forced to subsist upon the cereals alone. 
Such feeds lack the bulk or volume essential to healthy, vigorous 
digestive action. An excellent corrective for concentrated feeds 
in winter is found in well-made clover hay. For pig feeding, 
clover hay should be run through the feed-cutter and the chaff 
well soaked by pouring scalding water over it. To the material 
so softened add meal, and feed the mixture once a day to all pigs 



612 Feeds and Feeding. 

except those in the last stages of fattening. While the pig gets 
some nourishment from the hay, much of the advantage is doubt- 
less due to the normal distention of the digestive tract effected 
by this material. (876) 

928. Pasture. — Experienced feeders appreciate the value of 
pasture for swine. Doubtless the returns from an acre of past- 
ure-land have been overstated by some writers, but its advan- 
tages, on the whole, have not been overdrawn. The results at 
the Utah Station (875) show that a gain of one-third of a pound 
daily is possible with thrifty shotes on good alfalfa pasture. For 
pasture, alfalfa and red clover doubtless lead all other plants of 
the field, (875) white clover, blue grass and rape following in 
value. Pasture plants, to be satisfactory with swine, must be 
short and tender, all efibrt to make them eat the long stems being 
useless. Booting in pastures tends to lengthen the skull, increase 
the size of the animal's head and enlarge the muscles running 
along the back of the neck. (832) Where health and lean 
meat are the objects sought, pigs should have no rings in their 
noses, and should be allowed to govern their own actions as to 
how much they tear up the sod in search of animal and vegetable 
food. All means for preventing rooting are at best necessary 
evils. When on pasture pigs should be fed grain, the amount of 
green forage consumed about supporting them, leaving the addi- 
tional food to be utilized in increasing their weight. 

929. Administration of feed. — Suckling pigs take nourishment 
from the dam about every two hours, and we may accept Nature's 
guidance for the frequency of feeding very young animals. At 
weaning time the pigs should receive feed at least three times 
daily, with water always accessible. Since the digestive tract of 
this animal is of limited volume, probably the best results in fat- 
tening can be obtained with three feeds daily; but habit controls 
here as elsewhere, and stockmen can easily accustom their ani- 
mals to expect feed morning and evening only, meanwhile being 
content. 

Since meal when dry is more slowly masticated than when 
moistened, it might be supposed that the greater addition of saliva 
consequent upon slow eating would increase the digestibility of 



Feeding and Management of Swine. 613 

meal so fed, but tlie trials so far made favor moistening tlie feed 
with water. Observation shows that the pig does not take kindly 
to dry meal, eating it very slowly, and often rooting much of it 
out of the trough. On the whole sloppy feeds are best for the 
pig. (837) 

930. Confinement. — It is possible to confine a few pigs in a sty 
when young and carry them successfully to the end of their 
career, but only a limited number of animals can be managed in 
one pen under such a system. When handled in large numbers 
pigs should be given ample range during the growing period, and 
be confined to pens only during the fattening stage. Experiments 
show that the best gains for feed consumed are secured during the 
first four weeks of confinement; that up to eight weeks good re- 
sults are possible; while if the feeding period is extended to 
twelve weeks the gains during the last four weeks are made at a 
greatly increased consumption for a given gain. As a rule pigs 
should not be fed over eight weeks in a pen, though they may be 
held somewhat longer if a rising market is assured, or for other 
good cause. (838, 847, 903) 

931. Variety in feeding stuffs. — In feeding pigs we may always 
rely upon two feeding stuffs giving better results than one, and, 
guided by this, the feeder should have a variety at command. 
(852) Usually he has on hand one leading variety of grain or 
meal; let him intelligently search for complementary feeds. For 
example, if corn is relied upon as the main feed, this aliment, so 
rich in carbonaceous matter, should be supplemented with one 
rich in protein and ash. Milk, middlings, oat meal and pea meal 
naturally supplement corn, and, if volume is desired, bran will 
prove helpful. 

932. Ball-feeding show pigs. — Stephens' describes how, toward 
the close of the feeding period, English pigs fed for exhibitions are 
induced to put on the last possible ounce of fat. Equal quantities 
of bean, corn, barley and wheat meals are used, and three parts 
of this mixture added to one part of middlings, with the addi- 
tion of a little linseed meal. This material is moistened with 
milk to form a dough and made into balls the size of an e^g. 

1 Book of the Farm. 



614 Feeds and Feeding. 

After the pigs have eaten all they will of the ordinary feed they 
are given a dessert of these balls dipped in milk. The pigs soon 
learn to sit on their haunches and are fed the dainty morsels one 
after another in turn, each pig, after eating the thinner food given 
him in the trough, consuming about a gallon more of these ball 
mixtures. 

933. Influence of feed on quality of pork. — Brewer^ summarizes 
his experience in regard to the influence of the food of swine on 
the quality of the flesh produced, as follows: 

''The best flavored pork and the heaviest weight of the same 
was obtained in case of milk-fed swine; next to milk came the 
cereals — corn, barley, oats and peas. Potatoes produced a soft, 
light pork which loses a good deal in boiling. The meat of swine 
fed on flour-mill by-products was yellow, without body, and of a 
poor flavor. Oil meals produced a loose, oily pork of an unpleas- 
ant flavor. Beans produced a hard, indigestible and flavorlesa 
pork, and acorns one that was light, hard and unhealthy." 

1^0 extended work has yet been done in this country on the 
influence of feeds on pork, and for the present we must be guided 
by the statements of foreign observers, mainly the Danish inves- 
tigators. Here is an important field for our Experiment Stations. 
(8S5, also various articles in Cliapter XXXIV. ) 

934. Correctives for swine. — Every stockman who has kept 
pigs in confinement has observed their strange craving for seem- 
ingly unnatural substances, — sand rock, soft brick, mortar, rot- 
ten wood, charcoal, soft coal, ashes, soap suds and many other 
articles being greedily devoured when offered. Such objects 
lie outside the range of nutritive substances, and we are puzzled 
to know why they should be so eagerly consumed. In the wild 
stute, the hog ranges through woods and open tracts, living upon 
small animals, larvae, and vegetation generally. This material is 
of such character and is gathered in such manner that some of 
the soil is swallowed with it. With rings in its nose to prevent 
rooting while in the pasture, confined on board floors during 
the fattening period and given feeds containing little ash, the 
jug's life is passed under unnatural conditions. Another cause 

' Gohren. Futterungslehre, 1872, p. 420. 



Feeding and Management of Swine. 615 

for this craving may be intestinal worms, which are checked 
or destroyed by some of the substances consumed. Unsatisfac- 
tory or incomplete as such explanations may be, the fact remains 
that the pig seeks out these unnatural substances and greedily 
consumes them. The feeder would best supply what the pig 
craves in this direction and search for explanations later if he 
wishes. 

Ashes either from wood or coal will always be in place in the 
feeding pen and even in the feed lot. It is surj>rising how much 
of these will be consumed by a bunch of pigs. Feeding trials 
show that pigs when confined to an exclusive corn diet are 
greatly benefited by ashes, this substance causing the feed to be 
more effective and adding to the strength of the bones — the 
latter result probably being due to the lime in the ashes. (114) 
Bone meal is another substance useful for strengthening the bones 
of pigs. By saving the droppings, substantially all the value of 
this high-grade fertilizer may be secured for field and garden 
after it has served its purj^ose with the pigs. 

935. Corn-cob charcoal. — Corn cobs are abundant in districts 
where swine feeding is largely i:»racticed. They can serve no 
better purpose so far as needed than in producing charcoal for 
use in the feeding i)eus. 

The following directions for reducing cobs to charcoal are given 
by Theodore Louis, ^ a breeder of high repute in the Northwest: 
''Dig a hole in the ground five feet deep, one foot in diameter at 
the bottom and five feet at tlie top, for the charcoal pit. Take 
the corn cobs, which have been saved in a dry place, and, start- 
ing a fire in the bottom of this pit, keep adding cobs so that the 
flame is gradually drawn to the top of the pit, which will be 
thus filled Avith the cobs. Then take a sheet iron cover, similar 
to a pot lid in form, and over five feet in diameter, so as to 
amply coa er the hole and close up the burning mass, sealing the 
edges of this lid in turn with earth. At the end of twelve hours 
you may uncover and take out a fine sample of corn-cob charcoal. ' ' 

Charcoal so produced may be fed directly, or, better still, com- 
pounded as directed by Mr. Louis in the following manner: 

* Farm, Stock and Home, July 15, 1894. 



QIQ Feeds and Feeding. 

' ' Take 6 biisliels of tlils cob cliarcoal, or 3 bushels of common 
cliarcoal; 8 pounds of salt; 2 quarts of air-slacked lime; 1 bushel 
of wood aslies. Break the charcoal well down, with shovel or 
other implement, and thoroughly mix. Then take 1^ pounds of 
copperas and dissolve in hot water, and with an ordinary water- 
ing pot sprinkle over the whole mass and then again mix thor- 
oughly. Put this mixture into the self-feeding boxes, and place 
them where hogs of all ages can eat of their contents at pleasure." 
Where corn cobs are burned for fuel iu the prairie districts the 
ashes should be saved for the pigs. 

III. Discussion of the Experiments Reported in, Chapter VI on the 
Effects of Feed on the Body of the Pig. 

936. Lessons from the experiments. — The practical bearings of 
the investigations on the mal-nutrition of pigs reported in Chapter 
VI are here presented. These experiments were conducted at 
several Stations in widely separated states and countries and with 
different feeds, yet the results were concordant in showing that 
the frame of the growing animal and the vital organs can be 
greatly modified by improper nutrition, — the nuiscles pro- 
duced by such feeding being less than normal in size, the bones 
robbed of their strength, the vital organs, such as the liver and 
kidneys, modified, and even the blood reduced in quantity. Are 
there not lessons here for the student, and the breeder and feeder 
as well, which, if understood and appreciated, will help to a bet- 
ter management of farm animals, especially the pig % 

937. Limits of bone and muscle development. — In studying 
these experiments we should understand the limitations of nature 
in the development of the muscle and bone systems. No feeds or 
combinations of feeds are known which will cause an animal to 
develop bone and muscle beyond what is set by inheritance. It 
was shown that pigs fed skim milk, dried blood and other protein- 
rich feeds had stronger bones and larger muscles (more lean meat) 
than those receiving corn meal only, but this does not show that 
these animals had increased in bone and muscle beyond the normal. 

In supplying pigs in these experiments with feeds rich in pro- 
tein and ash, their bodies were developed in bone and muscle to 



Feeding and Management of Sioine. 617 

the limit of their constitutions set by inheritance. On the other 
hand, the growing pigs which received corn only during the trials 
were prevented, through lack of sufficient proper nutrients, from 
developing normal frames of bone and muscle. Pigs can be fed 
to produce bone and lean meat only as such flesh and bone are 
the sequence of normal development. It is entirely possible, on 
the other hand, to so feed or mal-nurture them as to prevent a 
normal growth of bone and muscle or lean meat while storing 
abnormally large quantities of fat. 

938. The fat of the body. — Study will show that the deposi- 
tion of fat in the body is a matter of feed and conditions, con- 
ti'olled primarily by inheritance or constitution and having a 
wide range for the individual. Fat is reserve fuel stored in 
the body against a time of need. This true. Nature, which has 
set close limits to the development of the animal frame, shows 
no such restriction in the accumulation of fat. K conditions and 
feed are favorable, the animal stores large quantities of fat, the 
ability to do so being set by inheritance, character of feed, amount 
of exercise, etc. 

939. Illustration from the human frame. — We can best illus- 
trate the above by reference to the human frame. No person by 
what he eats, in kind or quantity, can increase in bone or muscle 
beyond the normal of constitutional inheritance. On the other 
hand, the amount of fatty matter which is deposited in the tissues 
of the human body varies with different individuals, according 
to constitution, habits, character of food and amount of exercise 
taken. The grown athlete cannot add a pound of muscle to his 
body because of the food he eats; indeed, when he goes into 
training he reduces his weight, losing fat and water from the 
tissues. While a human being cannot add to his stature nor 
increase the muscles of his body by the kind of food he eats, the 
fat stored in the tissues may in extreme cases even double the 
normal weight of the body. 

940. Lessons for breeder and feeder. — The observant feeder 
and breeder of swine studying these trials must be impressed with 
the plastic character of the body of the growing animal. He 
learns that the bones and muscles as well as some of the internal 
organs of the body can be thrown out of their normal relation 



G18 Feeds atid Feeding. 

one to another througli an unbalanced or improper food supply. 
He sees it possible for immature animals to live a long time with- 
out showing disease, while being dwarfed in form and made pre- 
maturely fat. He learns that Nature's plan is to grow the frame- 
work first and lay on fat afterwards. He understands that while 
no farmer would feed his pigs as these were fed, wrong feeding 
may nevertheless unconsciously be practiced by many. He con- 
cludes, rightly, that if a pig or other young animal is mal-nur- 
tured so as to modify its bones, muscles and vital organs ever so 
little, and the animal so affected is later used for breeding pur- 
poses, the descendants likewise being mal -nurtured, the cumula- 
tive ill effects may in a few generations become very marked. He 
sees disaster through the excessive use of corn^ rich in carbohy- 
drates but x)Oor in bone and muscle elements, as the sole feed for 
young pigs. On the other hand, he studies the long list of feed- 
ing stuffs complementary to corn which will build strong bones 
and ample muscles. By the judicious use of feed mixtures he 
secures animals of great vigor, and selecting the best of these in 
framework and constitution, he holds his herd to a high standard. 
The feeder learns that the young pig should be nurtured upon 
a combination of feeding stuffs that will first develop a normal 
frame of bone and nuiscle. Having the desired frame, if the 
market demands lean meat, he will produce this to the limit of 
the pig's normal development, adding fat at the close of the 
feeding period to the extent desired by the market. In America 
corn is the common feeding stuff for swine, and pigs show such 
fondness for it that harm oftcm results because the practice of 
the feeder and breeder is guided by the appetite of the animal 
rather than by a knowledge of the composition and limitations of 
feeds. Let us not despise corn because, when wrongly and ex- 
cessively used as it purposely was in these experiments with, 
young, growing pigs, it failed to develop the normal framework 
of bone and muscle. Each feed has its function in the nutrition 
of animals, and only by its abuse can unfavorable results follow. 
Tliis grain has enabled the United States to take first rank among 
nations in the quantity of pork produced, and upon its judicious- 
use rests future success. 



APPENDIX. 



Table I. Average Composition of Ameeioan Feeding 

Stuffs. 

This table is mainly from Farmers' Bulletin 22, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, 1895, whicli in turn is based on Jenkins and 
Winton's tables in Bulletin 11, Office of Experiment Stations, 
Department of Agriculture, Washington. 

Analyses not from the source above mentioned are in most 
cases from the following: Zusammensetzung der Futterm., Diet- 
rich and Konig; Farm Foods, Wolff, English edition, Cousins; 
Woll, Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen; Holland, Eeport 
Massachusetts (Hatch) Experiment Station, 1896; Jenkins and 
Winton's tables, and Bulletin 87, "New Jersey Experiment Station. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Concentrates. 

Com, dent 

Corn, flint 

Corn, sweet 

Corn meal 

Corn cob 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn bran 

Corn germ 

Hominy chops 

(ienn meal 

Dried starch and sugar feed 

Ktarch feed, wet 

Maize feed, Chicago 

Grano-gluten 

Cream gluten 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Wheat, all analyses 

Wheat, spring 

Wheat, winter 



Percentage composition. 



Water. 



10.6 
11.3 
8.8 
15.0 
10.7 



11. 1 

8.1 
10.9 
65.4 

9.1 

5.8 
8.1 
8.2 

7.8 

10.5 
10.4 
10.5 



Ash. 



1.5 
1.4 
1.9 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
1.3 
4.0 
2.5 
1.3 
0.9 
0.3 
0.9 
2.8 
0.7 
0.9 
1.1 

1.8 
1.9 

1.8 



Pro- 
tein. 



10.3 

10.5 

11.6 

9.2 

2.4 

8.5 

9.0 

9.8 

9.8 

11.1 

19.7 

6.1 

22.8 

31.1 

36.1 

29.3 

24.0 

11.9 
12.5 
11.8 



Crude 
fiber. 



2.2 
1.7 
2.8 
1.9 

30.1 
6.6 

12.7 
4.1 
3.8 
9.9 
4.7 
3.1 
7.6 

12.0 
1.3 
3.3 
5.3 

1.8 
1.8 

1.8 



Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 



70.4 
70.1 
66.8 
68.7 
54.9 
64.8 
62.2 
64.0 
64.5 
62.5 
54.8 
22.0 
52.7 
33.4 
39.0 
46.5 
51.2 

71.9 
71.2 
72.0 



Etlier 

ex- 
tract. 



5.0 

5.0 

8.1 

3.8 

0.5 

3.5 

5.8 

7.4 

8.3 

7.1 

9.0 

3.1 

6.9 

14.9 

14.8 

11.8 

10,6 

2.1 
2.2 
2.1 



0-3 



86 

68 

26 

77 

18 

7 

5 

3 

12 

6 

4 

12 

3 

1 

3 

20 

11 

310 
13 

262 



€20 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Table I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 







Percentage < 


3omposition. 




•^i 


Feeding stuff's. 


Water. 


Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 


Etlier 

ex- 
tract. 


6>^ 

c3 


Concentrates — con. 
Flour, higli grade 


12 2 
12^0 
9.7 
11.9 
11.5 
12.3 
12.1 
11.8 
11.6 

11.6 

13.1 

11.6 

9.3 

10.9 
11.9 
12.2 

75.7 

8.2 

10.2 

11.0 

7.9 
7.7 
6.5 
7.3 

12.4 
10.2 

8.2 

9.7 

^10.0 

12.6 
14.6 
13.2 
10.5 
11.1 
13.2 

12.8 
11.5 

9.3 
14.0 

9.5 

9.2 

8.1 

9.2 

10.1 


0.6 
2.0 
4.3 
5.8 
5.4 
5.9 
3.3 
4.6 
2.9 

1.0 
0.7 
3.6 
5.9 

2.4 
2.6 
3.6 
1.0 
3.6 
5.7 

3.0 
2.0 
3.7 
6.9 
6.7 

0.4 

8.1 

13.2 

10.0 

6.7 

2.0 
1.0 
2.2 

slo 

5.1 

4.8 

2.1 
3.4 
1.5 
3.3 
5.0 

4.3 
4.7 
5.7 
5.8 


14.9 
18.0 
19.9 
15.4 
16.1 
16.0 
15.6 
14.9 
12.5 

10.6 

6.7 

14.7 

18.0 

12.4 
10.5 
12.3 
5.4 
19.9 
23.2 

11.8 
14.7 
16.0 
13.5 
3.3 

7.4 
12.0 

3.6 
12.1 
11.7 

10.0 
6.9 
4.6 
12.4 
27.1 
28.9 

9.1 
10.2 

9.9 
11.8 

9.9 

22.6 
21.6 
32.9 
33.2 


0.3 
0.9 
3.8 
9.0 
8.0 
8.1 
4.6 
7.4 
4.9 

1.7 
0.4 
3.5 
5.1 

2.7 
6.5 
7.3 
3.8 
11.0 
10.7 

9.5 
0.9 
6.1 

18.2 
29.7 

0.2 
5.4 
35.7 
9.5 
6.3 

8.7 
0.3 
43.5 
31.9 
8.3 
4.1 

2.6 
7.1 
1.4 
9.5 

7.7 

7.1 
7.3 
8.9 
9.5 


70.0 
63.3 
56.2 
53.9 
54.5 
53.7 
60.4 
56.8 
65.1 

72.5 
78.3 
63.8 
59.9 

69.8 
66.3 
61.8 
12.5 
51.7 
48.5 

59.7 
67.4 
59.4 
50.2 
52.1 

79.2 
51.2 
88.6 
49.9 
58.0 

64.5 

75.8 
35.3 
38.8 
40.8 
41.9 

69.8 
63.6 
74.9 
57.4 
63.2 

23.2 
27.9 
35.4 
38.4 


2.0 
3.9 
6.2 
4.0 
4.5 
4.0 
4.0 
4.5 
3.0 

1.7 

0.8 
2.8 
2.8 

1.8 
2.2 
2^8 
1.6 
5.6 
1.7 

5.0 
7.1 
7.1 

4.8 
1.0 

0.4 
13.1 
0.7 
8.8 
7.3 

2.2 
1.4 
1.1 
3.3 
7.6 
7.1 

3.6 
3.0 
'3.0 
4.0 
4.7 

33.7 

30.4 

7.9 

3.0 


1 


Flour, low grade 


1 


Flour, dark feeding 


1 


Bran, all analyses 


RK 


Bran, spring wheat 


10 


Bran, winter wheat 


7 


Middlings 


3'^ 


Shorts 


1''' 


Wheat screenings 


10 


Rye 


6 


Rye flour 


4 


Rye bran 




Rye shorts 


1 


Barley 


10 


Barley meal 


3 


Barley screenings 


^ 


Brewers' grains, wet 


15 


Brewers' grains, di'ied 


3 


Malt sprouts 


4 


Oats 


3(1 


Oat meal 


( 


Oat feed 


4 


Oat dust 




Oat hulls 


1 


Rice 


If 


Rice meal 




Rice hulls 




Rice bran 


C 


Rice polish 


A 


Buckwheat 


f 


Buckwheat flour 


A 


Buckwheat hulls 




Buckwheat bran 


i 






Buckwheat middlings 

Sorghum seed 


1( 


Broom-corn seed 




KafRr-corn seed 


1 


Millet seed 




Hungarian grass seed 

Flax seed 


5( 


Flaxseed, ground 




Linseed meal, old process... 
Linseed meal, new process. 


2 

1 



Appendix. 



621 



Table I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued^ 



Feeding stuffs. 



Concentrates — con. 

Cotton seed 

Cotton seed, roasted 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed liulls 

Cotton-seed iiernels (witii- 

out iiulls) 

Cocoanutcake 

Palm-nut meal 

Sunflower seed , 

8unflower-seed cake 

Peanut kernel (with out 

hulls) 

Peanut meal 

Rape-seed cake 



Percentage composition. 



Water, 



Pea meal 

Soja bean 

Cowpea 

Horse bean 

Roughage. 

Corn forage, field cured. 

Fodder corn 

Com stover 

Corn husks 

Corn leaves 



Corn forage, green. 

Fodder corn, all varieties... 

Dent varieties 

Dent, kernels glazed 

Flint varieties 

Flint, kernels glazed 

Sweet varieties 

Leaves and husks 

Stripped stalks 



Hay from grasses. 

Hay from mixed grasses 

Timotliy, all analyses 

Timothy, cut in full bloom 
Timothy, cut soon after 

bloom 

Timothy, cut when nearly 

ripe 

Orchard grass 

Red top, cut at different 

stages 

Red top, cut in bloom 

Kentucky blue grass 



10.3 
6.1 
8.2 

11.1 

6.2 
10.3 
10.4 

8 6 
10.8 

7.5 
10.7 
10.0 

10.5 
10.8 
14.8 
11.3 



42.2 
40.5 
50.9 
30.0 



79.3 
79.0 
73.4 
79.8 
77.1 
79.1 
66.2 
76.1 



15.3 
13.2 
15.0 

14.2 

14.1 
9.9 

8.9 

8.7 

21.2 



Ash. 



3.5 

5.5 
7.2 

2.8 

4.7 
5.9 
4.3 
2.6 
6.7 

2.4 
4.9 
7.9 

2.6 

4.7 
3.2 
3.8 



2.7 
3.4 
1.8 
5.5 



1.2 
1.2 
1.5 
1.1 
1.1 
1.3 
2.9 
0.7 



5.5 
4.4 
4.5 

4.4 

3.9 
6.0 

5.2 
4.9 
6.3 



Pro- 
tein. 



18.4 

16.8 

42.3 

4.2 

31.2 
19.7 
16.8 
16.3 
32.8 

27.9 
47.6 
31.2 

20.2 
34.0 

20.8 
26.6 



4.5 
3.8 
2.5 
6.0 



1.8 
1.7 
2.0 
2.0 
2.7 
1.9 
2.1 
0.5 



7.4 
5.9 
6.0 

5.7 

5.0 
8.1 

7.9 
8.0 

7.8 



Crude 
fiber. 



23.2 

20.4 

5.6 

46.3 

3.7 
14.4 
24.0 
29.9 
13.5 

7.0 

5.1 

11.3 

14.4 

4.8 
4.1 

7.2 



14.3 
19.7 
15.8 
21.4 



5.0 
5-6 
6.7 
4.3 
4.3 
4.4 
8.7 
7.3 



27.2 

29 !o 
29.6 

28.1 



Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 



28.6 
29.9 
23.0 



24.7 
23.5 
23.6 
33.4 

17.6 
38.7 
35.0 
21.4 
27.1 

15.6 

23.7 
30.0 

51.1 

28.8 
55.7 
50.1 



34.7 
31.5 

28.3 
35.7 



12.2 
12.0 
15.5 
12.1 
14.6 
12.8 
19.0 
14.9 



42.1 
45.0 
41.9 

44.6 

43.7 
41.0 

47.5 
46.4 
37.8 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



<^ a 



19.9 


5 


27.7 


2 


13a 


35 


2.2 


20 


36,6 


2 


11.0 




9.5 


6oa 


21.2 


2 


9.1 




39.6 


7 


8.0 


2480 


9.6 


500 


1.2 


2 


16.9 


8 


1.4 


5 


1.0 


1 


1.6 


35 


1.1 


60 


0.7 


16 


1.4 


IT 


0.5 


126 


0.5 


63 


0.9 


7 


0.7 


40 


0.8 


10 


0.5 


21 


1.1 


4 


0.5 


4 


2.5 


126 


2.5 


68 


3.0 


12 


3.0 


11 


2.2 


12 


2.6 


10 


1.9 


9 


2.1 


3 


3.9 


10 



622 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Table I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuffs. 



KouGHAGE — continued. 

JTajj from grasses — con. 
Kentucky blue grass, cut 

when seed in millc 

Kentucliy blue grass, cut 

when seed ripe 

Hungarian grass 

Meadow fescue 

Italian rye gra&s 

Perennial rye grass 

Ilowen (mixed) 

Mixed grasses and clovers... 

Barley hay, cut in milk 

Oat hay, cut in milk 

Swamp hay 

Salt-marsh hay 

Wild-oat grass 

Buttercups 

White daisy 

Johnson grass 

Fresh grass. 

Ptisture grass 

Kentucky blue grass 

Timothy, different stages... 

Orchard grass, in bloom 

Ked top, in bloom 

Oat fodder 

Kye fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

Barley fodder 

Hungarian grass 

Meadow fepcue, in bloom ... 
Italian rye grass, coming 

i n to bloom 

Tall oat grass, in bloom 

Japanese millet 

Barnyard millet 

Hag from, legumes. 

Bed clover 

Rod clover, in bloom 

lied clover, mammoth 

ALsike clover 

White clover 

Crimson clover 

Japan clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

8oja bean 

Pea vine 





Percentage 


composition. 




Water. 


Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


24.4 


7.0 


6.3 


24.5 


34.2 


3.6 


27.8 


6.4 


5.8 


23.8 


33.2 


3.0 


7.7 


6.0 


7.5 


27.7 


49.0 


2.1 


20.0 


6.8 


7.0 


2.5.9 


38.4 


2.7 


8.5 


6.9 


7.5 


30.5 


4;-).0 


1.7 


14.0 


7.9 


10.1 


2-5.4 


40.5 


2.1 


16.6 


6.8 


11.6 


22.5 


39.4 


3.1 


12.9 


5.5 


10.1 


27.6 


41.3 


2.6 


15.0 


4.2 


8.8 


24.7 


44.9 


2.4 


15.0 


5.2 


9.3 


29.2 


39.0 


2.3 


11.6 


6.7 


7.2 


26.6 


45.9 


2.0 


10.4 


7.7 


5.5 


30.0 


44.1 


2.4 


14.3 


3.8 


5.0 


25.0 


48.8 


3.8 


9.3 


5.6 


9.9 


30.6 


41.1 


8.5 


10.3 


6.6 


7.7 


30.0 


42.0 


3.4 


10.2 


6.1 


7.2 


28.5 


45.9 


2.1 


80.0 


2.0 


3.5 


4.0 


0.7 


0.8 


05.1 


2.8 


4.1 


9.1 


17.6. 


1.3 


61.6 


2.1 


3.1 


11.8 


20.2 


1.2 


73.0 


2.0 


2.6 


8.2 


13.3 


0.9 


65.3 


2.3 


2.8 


11.0 


17.7 


0.9 


62.2 


2.5 


3.4 


11.2 


19.3 


1.4 


76.6 


1.8 


2.6 


11.6 


6.8 


0.6 


79.4 


1.1 


1.3 


6.1 


11.6 


0.5 


79.0 


1.8 


2.7 


7.9 


8.0 


0.6 


71.1 


1.7 


3.1 


9.2 


14.2 


0.7 


09.9 


1.8 


2.4 


10.8 


14.3 


0.8 


73.2 


2.5 


3.1 


6.8 


13.3 


1.3 


69.5 


2.0 


2.4 


9.4 


15.8 


0.9 


75.0 


1.5 


2.1 


7.8 


13.1 


0.5 


75.0 


1.9 


2.4 


7.0 


13.1 


0.6 


15.3 


6.2 


12.3 


24.8 


38.1 


3.3 


20.8 


6.6 


12.4 


21.9 


33.8 


4.5 


21.2 


6.1 


10.7 


24.5 


33.6 


3.9 


9.7 


8.3 


12.8 


25.6 


40.7 


2.9 


9.7 


8.3 


15.7 


24.1 


39.3 


2.9 


9.6 


8.6 


15.2 


27.2 


36.6 


2.8 


11.0 


8.5 


13.8 


24.0 


39.0 


3.7 


8.4 


7.4 


14.3 


2.5.0 


42.7 


2.2 


10.7 


7.5 


16.6 


20.1 


42.2 


2.2 


11.3 


7.2 


15.4 


22.3 


38.6 


5.2 


15.0 


6.7 


13.7 


24.7 


37.6 


2.3 






Appendix. 



623 



Table I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — 


continued. 




Percentage composition. 




Feeding stuffs. 


Water. 


Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


It 

03 


BouGHAGE — continued. 

Hay from legumes — con. 

Vetcii 


11.3 
9.2 
8.4 
7.6 

15.0 

70.8 
74.8 
80.9 
71.8 
83.6 
75.1 
79.5 
84.2 
66.7 

9.6 

7.1 

9.2 

14.2 

14.3 

14.3 

9.9 

10.1 

9.2 

79.1 
76.1 
72.0 
74.2 
8.5.0 
79.3 

69.8 
50.1 

79.0 
76.0 
80.8 

78.9 
88.5 
86.5 
90.9 
90.5 
88.6 


7.9 
7.2 
7.9 
10.8 
7.3 

2.1 
2.0 
1.7 

2.7 
1.7 
2.6 
3.2 
1.2 
2.9 

4.2 
3.2 
5.1 
5.7 
9.2 
10.0 
5.5 
5.8 
8.7 

1.4 
1.1 
2.6 
2.8 
0.6 
2.9 

4.5 
3.5 

2.8 
2.4 
1.6 

1.0 
1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
0.8 
1.2 


17.0 
15.2 
22.9 
10.7 
14.8 

4.4 
3.9 
3.1 

4.8 

2:4 

4.0 
2.7 

2.8 
8.7 

3.4 
3.0 
4.0 
3.5 
4.5 
4.0 
5.2 
4.6 
8.8 

1.7 
0.8 
4.2 
4.1 
1.2 
2.7 

3.8 

5.9 

2.8 
2.5 
2.4 

2.1 
1.5 
1.8 
1.4 
1.1 
1.2 


25.4 
21.6 
26.2 
23.6 
20.4 

8.1 
7.4 
5.2 
7.4 
4.8 
6.7 
5.4 
4.9 
7.9 

38.1 
38.9 
37.0 
36.0 
36.0 
34.0 
43.0 
40.4 
37.6 

6.0 
6.4 
8.4 
9.7 
3.3 
6.0 

9.5 
13.0 

7.2 
7.2 
5.8 

0.6 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 
1.3 


36.1 
44.2 
31.4 
42.7 
39.5 

13.5 
11.0 

8.4 
12.3 

7.1 
10.6 

8.6 

6.5 
12.2 

43.4 
46.6 
42.4 
39.0 
.34.6 
36.2 
3-5.1 
37.4 
34.3 

11.0 

15.3 

11.6 

6.9 

8.8 
7.6 

11.1 

26.0 

7.2 

11.1 

9.2 

17.3 

8.0 
9.8 
5.5 
6.2 
7.5 


2.3 
2.6 
3.2 
4.6 
3.0 

1.1 

0.9 
0.7 
1.0 
0.4 
1.0 
0.7 
0.4 
1.6 

1.3 
1.2 
2.3 
1.5 
1.4 
1.5 
1.3 
1.7 
1.4 

0.8 
0.3 
1.2 

2.2 
1.1 
1.5 

1.3 
1.6 

1.0 

0.8 
0.3 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 


5 


Serradella 


3 


Flat pea 


5 


Peanut vines ( wittiout nuts) 
Hanfoin 


6 
1 


Fresh legumes. 

Red clover, different stages. 
Alsike clover 


43 

4 


Crimson clover 


3 


Alfiilfa 


?.3 


Cowpea 


10 


Soja bean 


27 


Serradella 


9 


Horse bean 


o 


Flat pea 


2 


Straw. 
Wheat 


7 


Rve 


7 


Oat 


12 


Barlev 


97 


Wiieat chaff. 




Oatchaff 




Buckwheat straw 


3 


Soja bean 


4 


Horse bean 


1 


Silage. 
Com 


99 


^ Sorghum 


6 


Red clover 


5 


Soja bean 


1 


Apple pomace 


1 


Cowpea vine 


2 


Cowpea and soja-bean vines, 
mixed 


1 


Field-pea vine 


1 


Barnyard millet and soja 
bean 







4 


Rye 


1 


Boots and tubers. 
Potato 


12 


Beets, common 


9 


Beet, sugar 


19 


Beet, mangel 


9 


Turnip 


3 


Ruta-baga 


4 







624 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Table I. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuffs. 





Percentage 


composition. 




Water. 


Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


88.6 


1.0 


1.1 


1.3 


7.6 


0.4 


88.3 


0.7 


1.6 


1.0 


10.2 


0.2 


79.5 


1.0 


2.6 


0.8 


15.9 


0.2 


71.1 


1.0 


1.5 


1.3 


24.7 


0.4 


90.5 


1.4 


2.4 


1.5 


3.9 


0.4 


75.7 


4.0 


2.0 


4.9 


12.7 


0.8 


88.0 


2.4 


2.6 


2.2 


4.4 


0.4 


90.9 


0.5 


1.3 


1.7 


5.2 


0.4 


80.8 


0.9 


1.8 


1.8 


7.9 


0.8 


88.4 


2.2 


2.4 


1.6 


5.1 


0.3 


84.5 


2.0 


2.3 


2.6 


8.4 


0.5 


55.3 


1.0 


2.5 


4.4 


34.8 


1.9 


80.8 


0.4 


0.7 


1.2 


16.6 


0.4 


87.2 
74.6 
91.0 
81.3 
86.9 
80.8 
90.4 
90.6 
90.1 
93.8 


0.7 
1.6 
0.4 
0.8 
0.9 
1.1 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.4 


3.6 

17.6 
2.1 
6.3 
3.7 
6.2 
3.3 
3.1 
4.0 
0.6 




4.9 
2.7 
5.3 
4.7 
4.4 
4.8 
4.7 
5.3 
4.0 
5.1 


3.7 
3.6 
1.2 
6.8 
4.1 
7,1 
0.9 
0.3 
1.1 
0.1 




















8.5 
10.7 
10.8 
89.8 
20.8 
76.7 


4.7 
4.1 

29.2 
0.6 

10.6 
0.5 


84.4 

71.2 

48.4 

0.9 

9.1 

1.4 






2.5 
13.7 
11.6 




0.3 




2.4 


6.3 
59.5 
16.2 




3.9 


1.3 


83.9 
93.7 


0.6 
0.2 


0.6 
1.9 


3.2 
0.6 


11.7* 
2.8 




0.9 


5.0 


11.3 


27.4 


8.0 


36.1 


12.3 






Roots and tubers — con. 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Artichol?:e 

Sweet potato 

Miscellaneous. 

Cabbage 

Sparry 

Sugar-beet leaves 

Pumpldn (field) 

Pumpkin (garden) 

Prickly comfrey 

Rape 

Acorns, fresh 

Apples 

Cow's milk 

Cow's milk, colostrum 

Mare's milk 

Ewe's milk 

Goat's milk 

Sow's milk 

Skim milk, gravity 

Skim milk, ceutrifiigal 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Dried blood 

Meat scraj) 

Dried fish 

Beet pulp 

Beet molasses 

Apple pomace 

Sorghum b.sgasse 

Distillery slops 

Dried sediment from distil 
lery slops 



41 

2 



793 
42 



7 
96 

7 
85 

3 

144 
6 
16 
35 
7 
2 
1 



* Includes fat. 



Appendix. 



625 



Table II. Average Digestibility of American Feeding 
Stuffs, with Additions from the German Tables. 

The data of this table are mainly from digestion trials con- 
ducted by American Experiment Stations, as compiled by Lindsey 
in the report of the Massachusetts (Hatch) Experiment Station 
for 1896. Coefficients from this source are marked ''M" in the 
last column of the table. To render the table more complete, 
additions have been made from the German tables. Those marked 
" L" are from Mentzel & Lengerke's Landw. Kalender for 1898. 
Those marked " K " are from Zusammensetzung der Futtermittel, 
Dietrich and Konig. 

A. Experiments with Ruminants. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Concentrates. 



Dent corn 

Corn meal 

Corn cob 

Corn and cob meal 

Gluten meal 

Gluten meal (Chicago) 
Gluten meal (King's)... 

Gluten feed 

Gluten feed (BufTalo)... 

Gluten feed (Pope's) 

Gluten feed (Peoria) 

Gluten feed (Atlas) 

Maize feed (Chicago) .... 
Cream gluten (Pope's).. 



Wheat bran 

Wheat bran, spring wheat. 
Wheat bran, winter wheat. 

Wheat middlings 

Rye meal 

Barley 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried , 

Oats 

Rice meal , 



Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process... 
Linseed meal, new process. 

40 



Per 

cent. 

91 

88 
59 
79 
87 
88 
81 
84 
83 
87 
86 
80 
84 
93 

61 
63 
62 
79 
87 
86 
67 
63 
62 
70 
7.5 

77 
79 
80 



Per 
cent. 

76 
60 
17 

52 

88 
89 
91 
85 
86 
86 
83 
73 
84 
84 

79 
80 
77 
82 
84 
70 
80 
73 
79 
78 
63 

91 

89 
85 



Per 

cent. 

58 



65 
45 



72 
66 

77 
78 



72 



22 
24 
27 
36 



50 
34 
40 
63 
20 
26 

61 
57 
74 






Per 

cent. 

93 
93 
60 

88 
88 
93 
79 
87 
84 
90 
90 
84 
85 
88 

69 
70 
65 
85 
92 
92 
69 
62 
59 
76 



55 

78 
84 



Per 
cent. 

86 
92 
50 
84 
93 
93 
94 
83 
87 
81 
79 
91 
90 
98 

68 
76 
64 
85 
64 
89 
100 
86 
91 
83 
85 

86 
89 
93 



K. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
M. 
L. 
M. 
L. 
L. 

L. 
M. 
M. 



626 



Feeds and Feeding, 



Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — confirmed. 



Feeding stuflFs. 



Concentrates — continued. 

Cotton seed 

Cotton seed, roasted 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Cotton-seed hulls, when fed 

with cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed hulls, when fed 

with cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed feed (hulls and 

meal) 

Cotton-seed feed (hulls and 

meal) 

Pea meal 

Sqja-bean meal 

Peanut feed 

Roughage. 

Fodder corn, field-cured. 

Dent and flint varieties, aver- 
age 

Dent, mature 

Dent, in milk 

Dent, immature, B. & W 
(coarse) , 

Dent, immature, no ears formed 

Flint, mature 

Flint, ears just forming 

Sweet, mature 



Corn stover, field-cured. 

Corn stover, all varieties — 

Corn stover 

Corn stover, shredded, fed dry. 
Corn stover, shredded, fed wet. 
Corn stover, tojas and blades 

Corn stover, leaves 

Corn stover, stalk below ear.... 

Corn stover, stalk above ear 

Corn stover, husks 

Corn stover, leaves below ear... 

Corn forage, green. 

Dent fodder corn, average glaz- 
ing and mature 

Dent fodder corn, mature 

Dent fodder corn, glazing 

Dent fodder corn, in milk 

Dent fodder corn, immature ... 



u 

a 
p 


2 


u 




a; i) 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


66 


68 


7G 


50 


87 


56 


47 


66 


51 


72 


76 


88 


32 


64, 


93 


41 


6 


47 


34 


79 


41 




38 


49 


78 


45 




46 


51 


76 


46 


45 


37 


50 


82 


55 


62 


46 


54 


85 


87 


83 


26 


94 


55 


79 
32 


87 
71 




73 
49 


85 
90 


12 


68 


55 


65 


73 


74 


66 


48 


57 


72 


76 


63 


50 


64 


66 


75 


57 


27 


59 


61 


76 


65 


62 


71 


64 


66 


71 


65 


76 


73 


70 


70 


70 


72 


71 


67 


67 


64 


74 


68 


74 


60 


45 


67 


61 


62 


62 


52 


67 


64 


52 


57 


40 


65 


56 


72 


60 


36 


70 


59 


74 


60 


55 


71 


62 


71 


56 


56 


61 


59 


63 


67 


21 


74 


69 


80 


55 


22 


71 


54 


64 


72 
65 


30 
35 


80 
78 




33 
56 


68 


66 


53 


52 


74 


76 


65 


51 


55 


72 


73 


67 


54 


51 


75 


78 


70 


61 


64 


76 


78 


68 


66 


67 


71 


68 



M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 

M. 

M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 



M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 



M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M.' 
M. 



M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 



Appendix. 627 

Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuflfs — continued. 



Feeding stuflfs. 



Roughage — continued. 
Comforage, green — continued 

Dent fodder corn, glazing, B. 

& W. (coarse) 

Bweet fodder corn, roasting ear 

stage 

Sweet fodder corn, in milk 

Hay from grasses. 

Meadow hay, rich in protein... 
Meadow hay, medium in pro- 
tein 

Meadow hay, poor in protein 

Timothy, all trials 

Timothy, cut in bloom 

Timothy, cut soon after bloom 

Orchard grass 

Red top 

Hungarian 

Mixed, rich in protein 

Mixed, medium in protein 

Rowen, average 

Dried pasture grass 

Barley hay 

Oats and vetch 

Timothy and clover, poorly 

cured 

Blue-joint grass ( Calamagros- 

tis Canadensis) in bloom 

Blue-joint grass, past bloom.... 
Wild-oat grass ( Danthonica 

spicata) 

Cats-tail millet {Pennesetum 

spicatum) 

Johnson grass 

Witch (quack) grass ( Triticum 

repens) 

Sorghum fodder (leaves) 

Sorghum bagasse (stalks after 

juice is removed) 

Swamp hay 

Salt hay of black grass {Juncus 

Oerardi) 

Low meadow fox grass ( iSpar- 

tinajuncea) 

High-grown salt hay (largely 

Spar Una juncea) 

Branch grass { Spar Una juncea 

with SparUna sUicta, var, 

glabra) 



CO 
<4-l 

o 
d 


a 


a 

o 
Ph 


.Q 

3 

O 


i; . 

IS 






Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 




cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


2 


52 


24 


46 


59 


78 


6 


72 


62 


60 


77 


79 


2 


77 


77 


75 


81 


74 


48 


67 


66 


63 


68 


57 


94 


61 


57 


60 


64 


53 


28 


56 


50 


56 


59 


49 


26 


57 


48 


52 


63 


57 


5 


60 


56 


58 


63 


57 


10 


53 


45 


47 


60 


53 


3 


56 


60 


61 


55 


55 


3 


60 


61 


61 


62 


51 


2 


65 


60 


68 


67 


64 


20 


58 


58 


60 


59 


48 


2 
8 




40 
68 


49 
66 


58 
64 


50 

47 


65 


1 


71 


72 


77 


73 


60 


4 


59 


65 


62 


63 


41 


2 


58 


60 


66 


54 


19 


2 


55 


38 


• 53 


60 


58 


2 


69 


70 


72 


69 


52 


1 


40 


57 


37 


43 


37 


3 


64 


58 


68 


65 


50 


2 


62 


63 


67 


59 


46 


1 


55 


45 


58 


54 


39 


4 


61 


58 


62 


66 


57 


2 


63 


61 


70 


65 


47 


1 


61 


14 


64 


65 


46 


2 


39 


34 


33 


46 


44 


2 


60 


63 


60 


56 


41 


2 


53 


57 


51 


52 


24 


2 


53 


63 


50 


53 


47 


2 


56 


62 


52 


54 


31 



M. 

M. 

M. 



L. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 

M. 

M. 



M. 



628 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stufiE^. 



Roughage — continued. 

Hay from grasses — continued. 

Buttercups {Ranuncidixs ncris) 

Wliite weed (Ox eye daisy) 

( Leucanthemum vulgare ) 

Straw and chaff. 

Wheat straw 

Rye straw 

Oat straw 

Barley straw 

Soja-bean straw 

Oatcbaff 

Wheat chaff 



Grasses, green. 

Pasture grasses, mixed 

Timothy 

Orchard grass, in bloom 

Oat fodder, in bloom 

Rye, formation of heads 

Sorghum, average 

Barley, in bloom 

Hungarian grass, early to late 

bloom 

Barley and peas, full bloom 

Oats and peas, bIoom(?) 

Rowen grass, mostly timothy, 

two-thirds grown 



Hay from legumes. 

Red clover, in bloom.. 

Red clover, late bloom, fair 

quality 

Red clover, good quality 

Alsike 

White 

Crimson 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa, late bloom 

Alfalfa, stage not given 

Cowpea-vine, fair quality.... 

Soja-bean 

Vetch 

Serradella, in bloom 

Peanut vines 

Sanfoin 



Per 
cent. 

56 

58 



43 
46 
48 
53 
55 
42 
26 



71 

58 
56 
64 
74 
67 
67 

63 
60 

68 

66 



61 

55 
52 
62 
66 
62 
60 



59 
62 
65 
62 
60 
62 



Per 
cent. 

56 

58 



11 
21 
30 
20 
50 
38 
6 



70 

50 
59 
75 
79 
46 
72 

63 

77 
81 

72 



62 

55 

49 
66 
73 
69 
74 
77 
69 
65 
71 
76 
75 
63 
70 



Per 

cent. 

41 
46 



52 
60 
54 
56 
38 
4.5 
37 



76 
52 
51 
60 
80 
59 
61 

70 
43 
57 

64 



49 

46 
48 
53 
61 
45 
43 
49 
43 
43 
61 
54 
50 
52 
36 



^0. 



Per 

cent. 

67 
67 



38 
37 
44 
54 

66 
49 
29 



73 
64 
54 
63 
71 
74 
71 

67 
61 

66 

68 



69 

64 
58 
71 
70 
62 
66 
64 
72 
71 
69 
66 
63 
70 
74 



Per 

cent. 

70 

62 



31 
32 

33 
42 
60 
48 
34 



63 
47 
51 
70 
74 
74 
60 

62 
60 
74 

52 



62 

53 
43 
50 
51 
44 
39 
54 
48 
50 
20 
60 
65 
66 
66 



M. 



M. 
L. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 



L. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
L. 
M. 
L. 



Appendix. 



629 



Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuflfs — oontiniied. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Roughage — continued. 

Legumes, green. 

Red clover, late bloom 

Rowen, late bloom 

Crimson clover, late bloom 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea, ready for soiling 

8oja bean, before bloom 

Boja bean, seed half grown 

Canada peas, just before bloom 

Silage. 

Dent com, grain milk stage to 
mature 

Dent corn, immature 

Dent corn, stage uncertain 

Dent corn, fine crushed (steers^ 

Dent corn, fine crushed (sheep) 

Dent corn, uncooked, ears ma- 
ture 

Dent corn, cooked, ears mature 

Flint, ears glazing 

Sweet, some ears matured 

Soja bean 

Cowpea vine 

Barnyard millet and soja bean 

Corn and soja bean 

Hoots and tubers. 

Potato 

Potato 

Beet, mangel , 

Beet, mangel 

Sugar beet 

Sugar beet 

Turnip, flat 

Ruta-baga 

Miscellaneous. 

Cow's milk 

Acorns, fresh 

Dried blood 

Meat scrap 

Fish guano 

Beet pulp 



m 
"3 

o 
d 




S 
o 

u 


« 
(D 

3 

o 






o 

3 




Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 


Per 






cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 




2 


66 


67 


53 


78 


65 


M. 


2 


61 


62 


52 


65 


61 


M. 


3 


69 


77 


56 


74 


66 


M. 


2 


67 


81 


45 


76 


52 


L. 


2 


76 


74 


57 


84 


59 


M. 


2 


66 


79 


50 


72 


54 


M. 


2 


62 


69 


41 


73 


54 


M. 


2 


71 


82 


62 


71 


62 


M. 


17 


64 


52 


62 


69 


85 


M. 


13 


64 


54 


70 


66 


71 


M. 


4 


60 


24 


56 


68 


70 


M. 


2 


64 


38 


75 


65 


76 


M. 


2 


54 


22 


64 


55 


68 


M. 


1 




45 
39 
65 


59 
70 

77 


71 
75 

79 


86 
87 
82 


M 


1 




M 


11 


75 


M. 


2 


68 


54 


71 


72 


83 


M. 


4 


55 


66 


49 


57 


61 


M. 


4 


60 


57 


52 


72 


63 


M. 


4 


59 


57 


69 


59 


72 


M. 


3 


69 


65 


65 


75 


82 


M. 


'>,?, 


85 
77 
88 
79 
89 
95 


61 
44 
77 
75 
62 
91 




90 
91 
96 
91 
95 
100 




T, 


3 






M 


18 






T, 


9, 


43 




M 


'?« 




T, 


2 


100 


50 


M. 


2 


93 


90 


100 


97 


98 


M. 


2 


87 


80 


74 


95 


84 


M. 


5 


98 
88 


94 

83 




98 
91 


100 

88 


T, 


2 


62 


L. 


'? 


63 
93 


62 
93 
90 
63 




100 


100 
98 
76 


T, 


F> 




T, 


? 






T, 


7 


82 


83 


84 


Ti. 



630 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued, 
B. Fxperiments with Figs. 



Feeding stufTs. 


to 

o 
d 


§ 

>> 

P 


a 
2 


4) 

s 
o 


1 


^H■t3 


o 
< 


Com meal 


4 

2 
1 

1 
1 
8 
1 
? 
? 

2 
2 
2 
8 
4 
1 
8 
1 


Per 

cent. 

92 
90 
83 
76 
90 
82 
80 
72 
82 
77 
61 
67 
93 
97 
72 
92 
95 


Per 
cent. 

86 
88 
69 
76 
89 
76 
81 
70 
80 
73 
75 
66 
73 
84 
72 
97 
96 


Per 

cent. 

40 
39 
38 
29 
78 
15 
49 
30 
60 
37 
34 
9 
55 


Per 
cent. 

95 
94 
89 

84 
95 
90 
87 
74 
83 
87 
66 
75 
98 
98 
92 


Per 
cent. 

76 
80 
46 
82 
50 
65 
57 
60 
70 


T, 


Corn meal 


AT 


Corn kernels, whole 


M 


Corn and cob meal 


M 


Pea meal 


AT 


Barley meal 


T. 


Barley meal ." 


M 


Wheat, whole 


M 


Wheat, cracked 


M 


Wheat shorts 


AT 


Wheat bran 


72 
58 


AT 


Rye bran 


T, 


Potato 


T. 


Potato 




AT 


Dried blood 






T, 


Flesh meal 




87 
95 


T, 


Sour milk 




99 


T, 









Appendix, 



031 



Table III. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertil- 
izing Constituents in American Feeding Stuffs. 

The data of this table for the digestible nutrients are derived 
mainly from the two preceding tables. In other cases they are 
from Bulletin 22, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington; Handbook for Farmers and 
Dairymen, Woll; Farm Foods, Wolff (English edition, Cousins), 
and Zusammensetzung der Futtermittel, Dietrich and Konig. 

The fertilizing constituents are principally from the Year Book 
for 1895, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, with 
additions from Wolff, Dietrich and Konig, and Bulletin 87, New- 
Jersey Experiment Station. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates, 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos 
phoric 
acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



CONCBNTEATES. 

Corn, all analyses 

Dent com 

Flint corn 

Sweet corn 

Corn cob , 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn bran 

Gluten meal 

Germ meal 

Starch refuse 

Grano-gluten 

Hominy chops , 

Glucose meal 

Sugar meal 

Starch feed, wet 

Wheat 

High-grade flour 

Low-grade flour 

Dark feeding flour 

Wheat bran 

Wheat bran, spring wheat 
Wheat bran, winter wheat 

Wheat shorts 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat screenings 

Rye 

Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Barley... , 

Malt sprouts 



Lbs. 

89.1 
89.4 
88.7 
91.2 
89.3 
84.9 
90.9 
91.8 
89.6 
91.8 
94.3 
88.9 
91.9 
93.2 
34.6 

89.5 
87.6 
87.6 
90.3 

88.1 
88.5 
87.7 
88.2 
87.9 
88.4 

88.4 
88.4 
90.7 

89.1 
89.8 



Lbs. 

7.9 

7.8 

8.0 

8.8 

0.4 

4.4 

7.4 

25.8 

9.0 

11.4 

26.7 

7.5 

30.3 

18.7 

5.5 

10.2 

8.9 

8.2 

13.5 

12.2 

12.9 

12.3 

12.2 

12.8 

9.8 

9.9 
11.5 
11.9 

8.7 
18.6 



Lbs. 

66.7 
66.7 
66.2 
63.7 
52.5 
60.0 
59.8 
43.3 
61.2 
58.4 
38.8 
55.2 
35.3 
51.7 
21.7 

69.2 
62.4 
62.7 
61.3 
39.2 
40.1 
37.1 
50.0 
53,0 
51.0 

67.6 
50.3 
45.1 

65.6 
37.1 



Lbs. 

4.3 
4.3 
4.3 
7.0 
0.3 
2.9 
4.6 

11.0 
6.2 
6.5 

12.4 
6.8 

14.5 
8.7 
2.3 

1.7 

0.9 
0.9 
2.0 
2.7 
3.4 
2.6 
3.8 
3.4 



1.1 

2.0 
1.6 

1.6 
1.7 



Lbs. 

18.2 
16.5 
16.8 
18.6 
5.0 
14.1 
16.3 
50.3 
26.5 
22.4 
49.8 
16.3 
57.7 
36.3 



23.6 
18.9 
28.9 
31.8 
26.7 



28.2 
26.3 
24.4 

17.6 
23.2 
18.4 

15.1 
35.5 



Lbs. 
7.0 



5.7 
12.1 
3.3 
8.0 
7.0 
5.1 



4.1 
1.0 

7.9 

2.2 

5.6 

21.4 

28.9 



13.5 

9.5 

11.7 

8.2 
22.8 
12.6 

7.9 
14.3 



Lbs. 
4.0 



6.0 
4.T 
6.8 
0.5 
5.0 
5.2 
1.5 
4.0 



0.3 
1.0 

5.0 
1.5 

3.5 
10.0 
16.1 



5.9 
6.S 

8.4 

5.4 
14.0 

8.1 

4.8 
16. » 



632 



Feeds and Feeding. 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 



Digestible nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein, 



Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid, 



Pot^ 
ash. 



Concentrates — continued. 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried 



Oats 

Oat meal 

Oat feed or shorts., 

Oat dust 

Oat hulls 



Rice 

Rice hulls... 
Rice bran... 
Rice polish . 



Buckwheat 

Buckwheat hulls 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat shorts 

Buckwheat middUngs , 



Sorghum seed 

Broom-corn seed. 

Kaffir corn 

Millet 



Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process.. 
Linseed meal, new process. 

Cottonseed 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Cocoanutineal 

Palm-nut meal , 

Sunflower seed , 

Sunflower-seed cakes 

Peanut meal 

Rape-seed meal 



Peas 

Soja (soy) bean. 

Cowpea 

Horse bean , 



Roughage. 
Fodder corn. 
Fodder corn, green. 



Fodder corn, field-cured. 
Corn stover, field-cured.. 



Lbs. 

24.3 
91.8 



89.0 
92.1 
92.3 
93.5 
90.6 

87.6 
91.8 
90.8 
90.0 

87.4 
86.8 
89.5 
88.9 
87.3 

87.2 
85.9 
84.8 
86.0 

90.8 
90.8 
89.9 
89.7 
91.8 
88.9 
89.7 
89.6 
92.5 
91.8 
89.3 
90.0 

89.5 
89^2 

85.2 
85.7 



20.7 

57.8 
59.5 



Lbs. 

3.9 
15.7 



9.2 

11.5 

12.5 

8.9 

1.3 

4.8 
1.6 
5.3 
9.0 

7.7 

2.1 

7.4 

21.1 

22.0 

7.0 
7.4 
7.8 
8.9 

20.6 
29.3 
28.2 
12.5 
37.2 
0.3 
15.6 
16.0 
12.1 
31.2 
42.9 
25.2 

16.8 
29.6 
18.3 
22.4 



1.0 
2.5 
1.7 



Lbs. 

9.3 
36.3 



47.3 
52.1 
46.9 
38.4 
40.1 

72.2 
44.5 
4.5.1 

56.4 

49.2 
27.9 
30.4 
33,5 
33.4 

52.1 
48.3 
57.1 
4.5.0 

17.1 

32.7 
40.1 
30.0 
16.9 
33.1 
38.3 
52.6 
20.8 
19.6 
22.8 
23.7 

51.8 
22.3 
54.2 
49.3 



11.6 

34.6 
32.4 



Lbs. 

1.4 
5.1 



4.2 
5.9 
2.8 
5.1 
0.6 

0.3 
0.6 
7.3 
6.5 

1.8 
0.6 
1.9 
5.5 
5.4 

3.1 

2.9 

2.7 
3.2 

29.0 

7.0 

2.8 

17.3 

12.2 

1.7 

10.5 

9.0 

29.0 

12.8 

0.9 

7.5 

0.7 

14.4 

1.1 

1.2 



0.4 
1.2 
0.7 



Lbs. 

8.9 
36.2 

20.6 
23.5 
17.2 
21.6 
5.2 

10.8 
5.8 
7.1 

19.7 

14.4 

4,9 

36.4 



42.8 

14.8 
16.3 



20.4 

36.1 
54.3 
57.8 
31.3 
67.9 
6.9 
.32.8 
26.9 
22.8 
.55.5 
75.6 
49.6 

30.8 
53.0 
33.3 
40.7 



4.1 
17.6 
10.4 



Lbs. 

3.1 

10.3 



8.2 

'9.'r 
'2.4 



1.8 
1.7 

2.9 

26.7 

4.4 

0.7 

17.8 



21.9 
8.1 

"8.5 

13.9 
16.6 
18.3 
12,7 
28.8 
2.5 
16.0 
11.0 
12.2 
21.5 
13.1 
20.0 

8.2 
18.7 



Lbs. 

0.5 
0.9 



6.2 
'5.3 
5.'2 



0.9 
1.4 
2.4 
7.1 

2.1 

5.2 

12.8 



1.5 

5.4 
2.9 



11.4 
4.2 

"3.6 

10.3 

13.7 

13.9 

11.7 

8.7 

10.2 

24.0 

5.0 

5.6 

11.7 

15.0 

13.0 

9.9 
19.9 



12.0 12.9 



3.3 

8.9 
14.0 



Appendix. 



63c 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 



Name of feed. 



Dry 

matter 

in 10!) 

pounds. 



Dijiestiljle nutrients 
in 100 pounds. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Carbo- 

by- 
d rates. 



Ether 

ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing con.stitu- 
ents in 1,000 pound.s. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Pho.s- 

phoric 

acid. 



Pot- 
ash. 



Roughage — continued. 

Fresh grass. 

Pasture grasses (mixed) .. 

Kentucky blue grass 

Timothy, different stages.. 
Orchard grass, in bloom... 

Itt'dtop, in bloom 

Oat fodder 

Rye fodder 

.Sorghum 

Meadow fescue, in bloom. 

Hungarian grass 

(Treen barley 

Peas and oats 

P«is and barley 



Hay. 

Timothy , 

Orchard grass 

liedtop 

Kentucky blue grass.., 

Hu ngarian grass 

Mixed grasses 

Rowen (mixed) 

Meadow fescue 

Hoja-bean hay 

Oat hay 

Marsh or swamp hay. 
Marsh or swamp hay. 
White daisy 

Straw. 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat chaff. 

Oatchaff 



Fresh legumes. 

Red clover, different stages 

Alsike, bloom 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja bean 



Legume hay and straw. 

Red clover, medium 

Red clover, mammoth 

Alsike clover 

White clover 

Crimson clover 



Lbs. 

20.0 
34.9 
38.4 
27.0 
34.7 
37.8 
23.4 
20.6 
30.1 
28.9 
21.0 
16.0 
16.0 

86.8 
90.1 
91.1 
78.8 
92.3 
87.1 
83.4 
80.0 
88.7 
91.1 
88.4 
92.1 
85.0 

90.4 
92.9 
90.8 
85.8 
85.7 
85.7 



29.2 
25 2 

28.2 
16.4 
24.9 



84.7 
78.8 
90.3 
90.3 
90.4 



Lbs. 



3.0 
1.2 
1.5 
2.1 
2.6 
2.1 
0.6 
1.5 
2.0 
1.9 
1.8 
1.7 

2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.8 
4.5 
5.9 
7.9 
4.2 
10.8 
4.3 
2.4 
3.5 
3.8 

0.4 
0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.3 
1.5 



2.9 
2.7 



6.8 

5.7 

8.4 

11.5 

10.5 



Lbs. 

10.2 
19.8 
19.1 
11.4 
21.2 
18!9 
14.1 
12.2 
16.8 
16.0 
10.2 
7.1 
7.2 

43.4 
42.3 
46.9 
37.3 
51.7 
40.9 
40.1 
43.3 
38.7 
46.4 
29.9 
44.7 
40.7 

36.3 
40.6 
38.6 
41.2 
23.3 
33.0 



14.8 
13.1 

9.1 
12.7 

8.7 
11.0 



3.5.8 
32.0 
42.5 
42.2 
34.9 



Lbs. 

0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.6 
1.0 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 

1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
2.0 
1.3 
1.2 
1.5 
1.7 
1.5 
1.5 
0.9 
0.7 
1.2 

0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.7 



0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 
0.2 
0.5 



1.7 
1.9 
1.5 
1.5 
1.2 



Lbs. 

9.1 

'4.'8 



4.9 
3.3 
2.3 



3.9 



12.6 
13.1 
11.5 
11.9 
12.0 
14.1 
16.1 
9.9 
23.2 



5.9 
4.6 
6.2 
13.1 
7.9 



5.3 
4.4 

4.3 
7.2 
2.7 
2.9 



20.7 
22.3 
23.4 
27.5 
20.5 



Lbs. 
2.3 



Lbs. 
7.5 



2.6 
1.6 



7.6 
7.6 



1.3 
1.5 
0.9 



1.6 



5.3 
4.1 
3.6 
4.0 
3.5 
2.7 
4.3 
4.0 
6.7 



1.2 
2.8 
2.0 
3.0 
7.0 



1.3 
1.1 
1.3 
1.3 
1.0 
1.5 



3.8 
5.5 
6.7 
5.2 
4.0 



3.8 
7.3 
2.3 



5.5 



9.0 
18.8 
10.2 
15.7 
13.0 
15.5 
14.9 
21.0 
10.8 



5.1 

7.9 

12.4 

20.9 

4.2 



4.6 
2.0 
4.9 
5.6 
3.1 
5.3 



22.0 
12.2 
22^3 
18.1 
13.1 



C34: Feeds and Feeding. 

Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Diges 
in 


ible nutrients 
100 pounds. 


FerlilizinK constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Pot- 
ash, 


Roughage — continued. 

Legume hay and straw — con. 

Alfalfa 


Lbs. 

91.6 

89.3 
89.9 
86.4 

20.9 

28.0 
23.9 
27.5 
32.0 
20.7 
25.8 

21.0 
24.0 

21.1 
13.0 
13.5 
9.1 
9.5 
11.4 
11.4 
11.7 
20.0 

15.3 

20.0 
12.0 
9.1 
19.2 
11.6 
14.0 
44.7 

91.5 

89.3 
89.2 
10.2 
79.2 

12.8 
25.4 
9.6 
9.4 
9.9 
6.6 


Lbs. 

11.0 

10.8 

2.3 

4.3 

0.9 
2.0 
0.6 
3.0 
1.9 
1.5 
2.7 

1.6 
1.6 

0.9 
1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
1.6 
2.0 

1.8 
1.5 
1.7 
1.0 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
2.1 

52.3 

66.2 

4-1.1 

0.6 

9.1 

3.6 
17.6 
3.1 
2.9 
3.9 
0.8 


Lbs. 

39.6 
38.6 
40.0 
32.3 

11.3 

13.5 

14.9 

8.5 

13.4 

8.6 

8.7 

9.2 
13.0 

16.3 
8.8 

10.2 
5.4 
7.2 
8.1 
7.8 

11.2 

16.8 

8.2 
9.8 
4.6 
5.8 
8.3 
4.6 
8.1 
34.4 

.0 

.3 

.0 

7.3 

59.5 

4.9 
2.7 
4.7 
5.2 
4.0 
4.7 


Lbs. 

1.2 
1.1 
1.0 

0.8 

0.7 
1.0 
0.2 
1.9 
1.6 
0.9 
1.3 

0.7 
0.7 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 

0.4 
0.3 
0.2 
0.3 
0.8 
0.2 
0.2 
1.7 

2.5 
13.7 
10.3 


Lbs. 

21.9 
19.5 
17.5 
14.3 

2.8 


Lbs. 

5.1 

5.2 
4.0 
3.5 

1.1 


Lbs. 
16 8 


Cowjoea 


14 7 


Soj a-bean straw 


13 ">, 


Pea- vine straw 


:o '^ 


Silage. 
Corn 


3 7 


Clover 




Sorghum 








Alfalfa 








Grass 








Cowpea vine 








Soja bean 








Barn-yard millet and soja 
bean 








Corn and soja bean 








Boots and tubers. 
Potato 


3.2 
2.4 
2.2 
1^9 
1.8 
1.9 
1.5 
1.8 
2.6 

3.8 
3.8 
4.1 


1.2 
0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
1.4 

1.1 
2.5 
1.5 


4 6 


Beet, common 


4 4 


Beet, sugar 


4.8 


Beet, mangel 


3 8 


Flat turnip 


3 9 


Ruta-baga 


4 9 


Carrot 


5.1 


Parenip 


4 4 


Artichoke 


4 7 


Miscellaneous. 
Cabbage 


4.3 


Sourrv 


5.9 




6 ?, 


Pumpkin, field 




Pumpkin, garden 


1.1 
4.2 
4.5 


1.6 
1.1 
1.5 


9 


Prickly comfroy 


7 5 


Rape 


3 6 


Acorns, fresh 




Dried blood 


135.0 
113.9 

77.5 
1.4 

14.6 

5.3 

28.2 
5.6 
5.6 
4.8 
1.5 


13.5 

7.0 

120.0 

0.2 

0.5 

1.9 
6.6 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 
1.4 


7 T 




1 


Dried fish 


^ 


Beet pulp 


4 


Beet molasses 


.0 

3.7 
3.6 
0.8 
0.3 
1.1 
0.3 


56 3 


Cow's milk .*. 


1 8 


Cow's milk, colostrum 

iSkim milk, gravity 


1.1 
1 9 


Skim milk, centrifugal .... 
Buttermilk 


1.9 
1 6 


^Vhey 


1.8 



Appendix. 633 

Table IV. Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. 

The table of feeding standards here presented is taken from 
Mentzel & Lengerke's Landw. Kalender for 1898. It comprises 
the standards originally prepared by Dr. Erail v. "Wolff for that 
publication, modified by Dr. C. Lehmann. The standards hav- 
ing been described at length in Chaj^ter VII of this work, little 
remains to be added for the guidance of the student in their use. 

The standards are arranged to meet the requirements of farm 
animals under normal conditions. The student should not ac- 
cept the statements in the standards as absolute, but rather as 
data of a helpful nature, to be varied in practice as circumstances 
suggest. 

The statements in the column headed ''Dry Matter" should 
be regarded as approximate only, since the digestive tract of the 
animal readily adapts itself to variations of 10 per cent, or more 
from the standard of volume. 

The column headed "Sum of Nutrients" combines the data of 
the three preceding columns, the ether extract being multiplied 
by 2.4 before adding. In the first column of this division of the 
table, marked "Crude Fiber =1," all the digestible nutrients are 
included. In the second division, marked "Crude Fibers: ^," it 
is assumed that 30 per cent, of the digestible non-nitrogenous 
nutrients consists of crude fiber, and one-half of this, or 15 per 
cent., is deducted. This deduction should be made in the case 
of rations containing much coarse forage. 

The standards are for animals of normal size. Those of small 
breeds will require somewhat more nutrients, amounting in some 
cases to .3 of a pound of nitrogenous and 1.5 pounds of non- 
nitrogenous digestible nutrients daily for 1,000 pounds of live 
weight of animals. 

Narrowing the nutritive ratio in feeding full-grown animals is 
for the purpose of lessening the depression of digestibility, (51) 
to enliven the temi^erament, or to increase the production of milk 
at the expense of laying on fat. 

The different standards given for the same class of animals 
according to performance illustrate the manner and direction in 
which desirable changes should be made. 



636 



Feeds and Feeding. 



In considering the fattening standards tlie student sliould bear 
in mind that the most rapid fattening is usually the most econom- 
ical, so that the standards given may often be profitably increased. 

Standards for milch cows are given for the middle of the lacta- 
tion period with animals yielding milk of average composition. 

The standards for growing animals contemplate only a mod- 
erate amount of exercise; if much is taken, add 15 per cent. — 
mostly non-nitrogenous nutrients — to the ration. If no exercise 
is taken, deduct 15 per cent, from the standard. 



Animal. 



S. 



4. 



Oxen. 

At rest in stall 

At light work 

At medium work 

At heavy work 

Fattening cattle. 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 

Milch coivs. 

When yielding daily - 
11.0 pounds of millc... 
16.6 pounds of milk.... 
22.0 pounds of milk.... 
27.5 pounds of milk.... 

/Sheep. 

Coarse wool 

Fine wool 



J. Breeding eives. 
With lambs 

6. Fattening sheep. 

First period 

Second period.. 

7. Horses. 

Light work 

Medium work.. 
Heavy work 

8. Brood sows 



Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. 



Lbs 

18 
22 
25 

28 



2.5 



30 



20 
24 

26 



Digestible nutrients. 



Lbs. 

0.7 
1.4 

2.0 

9. ft 



2.5 
3.0 

2.7 



1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 



1.2 
1.5 



2.9 



3.0 
3.5 



1.5 
2.0 
2.5 

2.5 






Lbs. 

8.0 
10.0 
11.5 
13.0 



15.0 
14.5 
15.0 



10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 



10.5 
12.0 



15.0 



15.0 
14.5 



9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

15.5 



Lbs. 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 

0.8 



0.5 
0.7 
0.7 



0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 



0.2 
0.3 



0.5 



0.5 
0.6 



0.4 
0.6 

0.8 

0.4 



Sum of 
nutrients. 



Crude fiber 
=1 =3^ 



Lbs. 

8.9 
12.1 
14.7 
17.7 



18.7 
19.2 
19.4 



12.3 
14.0 
16.7 

18.2 



12.2 
14.2 



19.1 



19.2 
19.4 



12.0 
14.5 
17.7 



Lbs. 

7.5 

9.7 

12.0 

15.0 



15.6 
17.0 
17.2 



10.2 
12.2 
14.4 
16.0 



10.0 
12.0 



16.3 



16.5 
16.9 



10.0 
12.8 
15.5 



19.0 






11.8 
7.7 
6.5 
5.3 



6.5 
5.4 

6.2 



6.7 
6.0 
5.7 
4.5 



9.1 

8.5 



5.6 



5.4 
4.5 



7.0 
6.2 
6.0 

6.6 



Appendix. 



G37 



Table IV. Feeding standards for farm animals — continued 


r 




Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. 




u 

s 

>> 

p 


Digestible 


nutrients. 


Animal. 


d 

o 


Is 




Sum of 
nutrients. 






Crude fiber 
=1 =J^ 


3^ 


9. Fattening stvine. 

First period 


Lbs 

36 
32 
25 

23 
24 

27 
26 
26 

23 
24 
25 
24 

24 

2.5 
2.5 
23 

22 
22 

26 
26 
24 

23 
22 

44 
35 
32 
28 
25 

44 
35 
33 
30 
26 


Lbs. 

4.5 
4.0 

2.7 

4.0 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 

4.2 
3.5 
2.5 
2.0 

1.8 

3.4 
2.8 
2.1 
1.8 
1.5 

4.4 
3.5 
3.0 

2.2 
2.0 

7.6 
5.0 
3.7 
2.8 
2.1 

7.6 
5.0 
4.3 
3.6 
3.0 


Lbs. 

25.0 
24.0 
18.0 

13.0 
12.8 
12.5 
12 5 
12.0 

13.0 
12.8 
13.2 
12.5 
12.0 

15.4 
13.8 
11.5 
11.2 
10.8 

15.5 
15.0 
14.3 
12.6 
12.0 

28.0 
23.1 
21.3 

18.7 
15.3 

28.0 
23.1 
22.3 
20.5 
18.3 


Lbs. 

0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

2.0 
1.0 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

2.0 
1.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

0.9 
0.7 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 

1.0 
0.8 
0.4 
0.3 
0.2 

1.0 
0.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 


Lbs. Lbs. 
31.2 


5 {> 


Second period 


•29.2 
22.0 


6 3 


Tiiird period 


7 


10. Growing cattle. 

Dairy breeds. 
Age In Av. live wt. 
months. per head, lbs. 

2r- 3 150 

3- 6 300 


21.8 
18.2 
15.7 
15.3 
14.2 

20.0 
19.9 
17.4 
15.7 
14.8 

20.5 
18.0 
14.8 
14.0 
13.0 

22 1 
20 ! 2 
18.5 
16.0 
15.0 

38 


21.0 
17.0 
13.7 
12.8 
11.8 

21.5 

19.0 
15.8 
13.9 
13.2 

18.4 
15.8 
12.8 
12.0 
11.0 

20.9 
17.8 
16.3 
13 8 
12.8 




4.. 5 
5.1 


6-12 500 


6 8 


12-18 700 


7 5 


18-24 900 


8 5. 


11. Oroiving cattle. 
Beef breeds. 
2- 3 160 


4 9: 


3- 6 330 


4 7 


6-12 550 

12-18 750 


6.0 

(> 8 


18-24 950 


7 2 


12. Growing sheep. 

Wool breeds. 
4- 6 60 


5 


6- 8 75 


5 4 


8-11 80 


6 


11-15 90 


7 


15-20 100 


7.7 


IS. Growing sheep. 

Mutton breeds. 
Ar- 6 60 


4 


6- 8 80 


4 8 


8-11 100 


5 ?. 


11-15 120 


6 3 


15-20 150 


6 5 


14' Growing swine. 

Breeding stock. 
2- 3 50 


4 


3- 5 100 


30.0 
26.0 
22 2 
17^9 

38.0 
30.0 
28.0 
25.1 
22.0 


5 


&- 6 120 

6- 8 200 


6.0 
7 




7.5 


16. Ch'owing, fattening swine. 
2- 3 50 


4 


3- 5 100 


5 


5- 6 150 

6- 8 200 


5.5 
6 


9-12 300 


6.4 



GLOSSARY. 



Technical terms which may not have been explained in the body of the 
book are here defined. The botanical names of a number of agricult- 
ural plants are also given to aid the reader who might otherwise be un- 
certain which species or variety is meant. 

i^bomasum. The fourth stonaach of ruminants. (28) 

Ad libitum. At pleasure. In case of feeding farm animals, all they will 
eat of any particular feeding stuff. 

Albuminoids. The more complex forms of protein. They are usually in- 
soluble in water or may be rendered so by heat. (10) See Protein. 

Alfalfa. Medicago sativa. 

Aliment. Food, nutriment. 

Alimentary tract or canal. The duct comprising the stomach, intestines, 
etc., by which food (aliment) is conveyed through the body, and 
the useless parts evacuated. (32) 

Alsike clover. Trifolium hybridum. 

Amides. Protein compounds simpler than the albuminoids, which are 
capable of transference in the plant, or such as have been reduced 
to their present form from the albuminoids. (71) See Proteiru 

Artichoke. Helianthus tuherosus. 

Ash. The pqrtion of a feeding stuff which remains after it has been 
burned. 

Assimilate. The conversion of digested nutrients into the fluid or solid 
substances of the body. 

Balanced ration. A combination of farm foods containing the various 
nutrients in such proportion and amount as will nurture the ani- 
mal for twenty-four hours, with the least waste of nutrients. 

Barnyard millet. Panieum crus-galli. 

Bolus. A rounded mass; the portion of the food ready to be swallowed 
at one time. 

Burr clover. Medicago maculata. 

Calorie. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one 
kilogram of water one degree Centigrade (or one pound of water 
four degrees Fahrenheit). (61) 

Carbhydrates. See Carbohydrates. 

Carbohydrates. A group of nutrients rich in protein and containing 
oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion in which they form water. 
The carbohydrates do not contain nitrogen. 



Glossary. 639 

Carnivorous. A term applied to animals that feed chiefly on flesh. 
Casein. The protein substance of milk which is coagulated by rennet or 

acids. 
Castor oil bean. The seed of Hieinics communis. 
Cathartic. A medicine that acts as a purge. 
Cellulose. The cell tissue of plants. The lint of cotton and wood pulp 

are almost pure cellulose. See Crude fiber. 
Chyle. A milky fluid found in the lacteals, consisting of digested but 

unassimilated nutrients in solution, and the digested fatty matter 

of the food in a state of emulsion. (35) 
Concentrates. The more nuti'itious portion of the rations of farm ani- 
mals, embracing such feeding stuffs as corn, oil meal, etc. 
Corn. See Indian corn. 
Corn fodder, or fodder corn. Stalks of corn, either green or dried, which 

are grown for forage and from which the ears or nubbins, if they 

carry any, have not been removed. 
Corn stover. See Stover. 
Cowpea. Dolichos katiang, var. sinensis. 
Crimson clover. Trifolium incarnatum. 
Crude fiber. The framework forming the walls of the cells of plants. It 

is composed of cellulose and lignin, the latter being the more 

woody portion. (20) 
Crude protein. See Protein. 
Diastase. The fennent found in seeds while germinating, especially in 

malting barley, by aid of which starch is converted into glucose. 
Digestible matter. The part of feeding stuffs brought into solution or 

semi-solution by the digestive fluids. 
Digestible nutrients. The portion of any food constituent that is digested 

by animals. 
Digestion coefficient. The percentage of any particular nutrient of a 

feeding stuff which is found to be digestible. 
Digestive tract. See Alimentary tract. 
Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining after the water or 

moisture contained therein has been driven off by heat. 
Cmulsion. A milk-like mixture of a liquid and a solid, or of two liquids 

in which one of the constituents, generally fat or oil, is present in 

suspension in an exceedingly fine mechanical condition. 
£nsilage. As a noun, the forage preserved Ln a silo; now usually termed 

silage, which see. As a verb, to place in a silo. 
Ergot. A parasitic fungus of poisonous qualities found on some of the 

cereals and grasses. (283) 
•Cther extract. That which is dissolved from a water-free feeding stuff 

by means of ether. It is often termed "fat" by agricultural 

writers. (21) 



640 Feeds and Feeding. 

Excrement. The indigestible or refuse matter of farm foods voided by 
animals. 

Fertilizing constituents. The nitrogen and mineral components of feed- 
ing stuffs. Generally the term applies only to nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid and potash, since these are most apt to be lacking in 
the soil or present in insufficient quantities. 

Field pea. Pisum arvense. 

Fodder corn. See Corn fodder. 

Foot-ton. The work performed in raising a weight of one ton to a height 
of one foot. 

Glucose, fruit sugar. The form of sugar found in fraits, honey, etc.; also 
in the alimentary canal. It can be obtained by treating starch or 
cane sugar (sucrose) with dilute mineral acids. 

Glycogen. A carbohydrate resembling starch, found in the liver. 

Grain equivalent. The term used to designate the comparative value of 
grain and less concentrated feeding stuffs, such as milk, whey, 
roots, etc. 

Gram. A metric weight. 453.6 grams equal one pound avou'dupois. 

Hairy vetch. Vicia villosa. 

Herbivorous. A tenn applied to animals that subsist on vegetable foods. 

Herd's grass. See Timothy. 

Hungarian grass, German millet. Setaria italica, var. germanica. 

Ibid. In the same place; preceding reference. 

Indian corn, or maize. Zea mays. 

Intestine. The lower part of the alimentary canal. (32) 

Japan clover. Lespedeza striata. 

Japanese millet. Setaria italica., vars. 

June grass. See Kentucky blue grass. 

Kaffir corn. Sorghum vulgare. 

Kentucky blue grass, or June grass. Poa pratensis. 

Kilogram. A metric weight equal to 2.2+ pounds. 

Lacteals. Minute tubes which take the chyle from the alimentary canal 
and convey it to the thoracic duct. See Lymphatics. 

Legumes. Plants belonging to the botanical family Leguminosse. Ex- 
amples: red clover, peas, beans. 

Levulose. Invert sugar, obtained with dextrose or grape sugar when 
cane sugar is heated with dilute mineral acids. 

Liter. A metric measure of capacity equaling 1.05-|- quarts. 

Loc. cit. In the place referred to; preceding reference. 

Lucern. See Alfalfa. 

Lymph. The colorless fluid found in the lymphatics of the animal body. 

Lymphatics. The vein-like vessels that convey lymph. (37) 

Lymphatic system. The system of lymph vessels which collect and con- 
vey the lymph. (37) 



Glossary. 641 

Maintenance ration. An allowance of food sufficient to maintain a rest- 
ing animal — neither gaining nor losing in weight. 
Mammoth clover. Trifolium medium. 
Mangel, mangel-wurzel. Beta vulgaris. 
Masticate. To crush or grind food with the teeth. (34) 
Meadow fescue. Festuea pratensis. 

Metabolism. The process by which, on the one hand, the digested food 
is built up into living matter, and on the other, the living matter 
is broken down into simpler products within a cell or organism. 
Meter. A metric unit of length equaling 3.28 feet. 
Millet, common. Panicum m,iliaeeum,. 

Millo maize. Sorghum, vulgar e or Andropogon sorghum,, var. 
Mineral matter. See Ash. (18) 

Nitrogen-free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining when the 
moisture, ether extract and crude fiber are deducted; it includes 
starch, sugar, gums, etc. (22) 
Nitrogenous substance. Any food substance containing nitrogen. See 

Protein. 
Nutrient. Any food constituent or group of food constituents capable of 
nourishing animals. Sugar, carbohydrates and protein are nu- 
trients. 
Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible protein to digestible carbo- 
hydrates and ether extract in a ration, the percentage of ether 
extract being multiplied by 2.4 and added to the carbohydrates. 
Oil meal. As understood by American farmers, this term applies only to 

linseed oil cake reduced to meal by grinding. (200) 
Omasum. The third stomach of ruminants. (28) 

Omniverous. Eating or living upon animal or vegetable food indiscrim- 
inately. 
Orchard grass. Dactylis glom,erata. 

Organic matter. The part of a feeding stuff which is destroyed by burn- 
ing. 
Parsnip. Pastinaca sativa. 

Pepsin. The digestive ferment found in the stomach of animals. (27) 
Period of gestation. The length of time of carrying the young; from 

conception to birth. 
Period of lactation. The time during which the animal suckles her 

young; with dairy cows, the period from calving to drying off. 
Prickly comfrey. Symphytum asperrimum. 

Protein. A term used to characterize the constituents of feeding stuffs 
which contain nitrogen. The organic part of the bones, muscles, 
tendons, internal organs, skin, etc., of the animal body are formed 
from the protein nutrients of feeding stuffs. Wheat gluten and 
white of egg are exami)les of protein. On the average, 16 per cent. 
41 



642 Feeds and Feeding. 

of protein compounds is nitrogen, the other elements being the 
same as in carbohydrates and fat. The protein compounds 
in feeding stuffs can be divided into albuminoids and amides, 
which see. The terms " nitrogenous compound " and " nitrogenous 
substance " have the same meaning as protein. 

Protoplasm. The jelly-like or granular substance of living plant-ceUs. (5) 

Provender. Forage, grain, or feed of any kind. 

Ptyalin. The ferment contained in the saliva. (25) 

Pumpkin. Cucurbita pepo. 

Rape. Brassiea napus. 

Ration. The allowance of provender given to an anknal during twenty- 
four hours. 

Red clover. Trifolium pratense. 

Redtop. Agrostis vulgaris. 

Rennet. The ferment found in the lining of the rennet stomach of young 
mammals. (27) 

Respiration apparatus. An appai'atus for determining the waste matter 
thrown off by the lungs of an animal. (54, 55) 

Reticulum, or honey comb. The second stomach of ruminants. (28) 

Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, including such feeding stuffs 
as hay, corn fodder, silage, roots, etc. See Concentrates. 

Rumen, or paunch. The first stomach of niminants. (28) 

Ruminant. An animal that chews the cud. 

Riita-baga, Swedish turnip, Swedes. Brassiea campestris, var. 

Saliva. The secretion of the salivary glands of the mouth, the office of 
which is to moisten the food and through its ferment, ptyalin, 
partially digest the starchy components of the food. (25) 

Scarlet or crimson clover. Trifolium incarnatum. 

Silage. A succulent forage preserved in the silo. 

Silo. An air-tight structure used for the preservation of forage in a suc- 
culent condition. 

Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a barn or enclosure with 
fresh grass or green fodders, as corn, rye, oats, etc. 

Soja bean, or soy bean. Soja his2oida. 

Sorghum. jSorg/mm vulgare, var. saccharalum. 

Spurry. Spe7-gula arvensis. 

Stover. The dry stalks of corn from which the ears have been removed. 

Succulent feed. Feed containing much water, as grass, silage, roots. 

Swedish clover. See Alsike clover. 

Teosinte. Euchlaena luxurians. 

Timothy, or Herd's grass. Phlenm pratense. 

Villi. Minute hair-like projections on the inside of the intestines, through 
which the larger jiortion of the digested nutrients is absorbed. (35) 

White clover. Trifolium repens. 



INDEX. 



The references are to pages. 



Abomasum, 16. 

Absorption, 20. 

Acorn, 219. 

Age, eflfect of on gain of steers, 367. 

Age of cow, effect of on productivity of 

feed, 406. 
Albuminoids, 6. 
Alfalfa or lucern, 203. 

compared with corn, 204. 

for pasture, 208. 

in eastern United States, 207. 

Iowa experience with, 204. 

losses in hay making, 206. 
' manner of growth, 207. 

yield of, 203. 
Alfalfa crop, nutrients in, 205. 
Alfalfa hay, 208. 

damage from rain, 206. 

fattening Western sheep on, 506. 

for sheep, 50.5. 

and grain for fattening sheep, 532. 
Alsike clover, 201. 

American Fat Stock Show, slaughter tests, 
■' 380. 

American ration for dairy cows, 114. 
Amiders, 7. 

influence on protein consumption, 48. 
Animal body, dry substance in, 72. 

fat in, 72. 

influence of feed on, 78. 

nitrogenous substance in, 72. 

water in, 72. 
Animal carcass, modification by roots, 214. 
Animal nutriiion, 40. 
Artichoke, 214. 

for horses, 307. 

for pigs, 571. 
Artificial digestion, 31. 

trials, 238. 
Ash, 7, 10. 

retained and voided by farm animals, 

- 265. 
Ashes, for pigs fed on corn, 86. 

for swine, 614. 
Asparagin, a nutrient, 48. 

influence on protein consumption, 48. 
Balanced ration, for steers, 357. 
Ball-leeding show pigs, 613. 
Barley, characteristics of, 133. 

fertilizing constituents of, 138. 

for cows, 474. 

for horses, 293. 

for swine, 562, 610. 



Barley vs. centrifugal skim milk for pigs, 

586. 
vs. Indian corn for pigs, 591. 
vs. rye for pigs, 588. 
Barley and its by-products in brewing, 133. 
Barley and peas, 191. 
Barrows vs. sows in swine feeding, 602. 
Beef, feeding for, 338. 

production, cotton seed for, 361. 
making, at the South, 361. 
value of breed in, 372. 
returns per acre of corn, 381. 
see Steer feeding. 
Beef and dairy cows compared, 405. 
Beet molasses, 224. 
potash in, 225. 
Beet pulp, means of utilizing, 223. 

silage from, 223. 
Beets of different sugar content vs. grain 

for pigs, 595. 
Beets and silage, relative cost, 252. 
Beets, see Roots. 
Bile, 17. 
Blood, the, 22. 

plasma, composition of, 22. 
venous, composition of, 22. 
dried, feeding pigs on, 78. 
for sheep, 511. 
Blood bread vs. grain for pigs, 597. 
Body fat, source of, 50. 
Body heat not a measure of the energy of 

food, 67. 
Body tissues, formation of, 40. 
Body waste, the, 41. 

Bone and muscle development, limita, 616. 
Bone meal for corn-fed pigs, 86. 
Bones, slrengLh of pig's, 83. 
Bran for sheep, 499, 523. 
for steers, 883. 
for swine, 610. 
vs. oats lor horses, 295. 
Bran and shorts vs. bran for horses, 295. 

see Wheat bran. 
Breed, value of, in beef making, 372. 
Bi-eed tests with pigs, 543, 603. 
with cows, 45). 
with steers, 373, 375. 
with sheep, 487-89. 
Brewers' grains, 136. 
for cows, 474. 
dried, 137. 

for horses, 293. 
wet, 137. 



644 



Index. 



Brood sow, feed for, 601. 

lmp)ortance of exercise for, 605. 
Broom-corn seed, 147. 
Buckwheat, for pigs, 5C8. 

wild, for slieep, 500. 
Buckwheat grain, 144. 
Buckwheat and its by-products, 144. 

fertilizing constituents of, 145. 
Bull, feed and care of, 407. 
Burr clover, 203. 
Butter, effect of cotton seed on quality of, 

156. 
Butter fat, effect of feed on composition of, 
442. 

see Fat and Milk fat. 
Buttermilk, 228. 

for pigs, 574. 
Cabbage, 216. 
Cactus, 217. 
Calf, composition of, TL 

rearing, 331, 338. 

dairy, rearing, 339. 

see Calves. 
Calorie, 38. 
Calorimeter, 37. 
Calorimetry, 37. 
Calves, birth weight of, 334. 

cod liver oil for, 337. 

cotton-seed meal for, 157. 

fall, 342. 

flax seed for, 337. 

feed and care after weaning, 341. 

gravity vs. separator skim milk, 336. 

hay tea for, 341. 

oleomargarine for, 337. 

separator skim milk for, 335. 

skim milk fed, gain from, 333. 

skim milk for, 335. 

sugar for, 337. 

veal, feeding, 343. 

wet chaffed hay for, 243. 

whey for, 337, 340. 

withholding coarse food from, 95. 

whole milk for, 334. 
Calving, influence of time from, on milk 

flow, 407. 
Cane sugar, 5. 

molasses, 225. 
Carbohydrate nutrition, 25. 
Carbohydrates, influence on protein con- 
sumption, 44. 

potential energy of, 38. 

source of fat, 51. 
Carbohydrates and fat, effects of, 48. 

value of, 59. 
Carbonic acid, excretion of, 66. 
Carcass, modifications of, 84. 

of farm animals, nitrogen and ash, 77. 
Carriage horse, feeding of, 322. 
Carrots, 212. 

for horses, 307. 

vs. mangels for pigs, 696. 
Castor oil seed in linseed meal, 153. 
Cattle, drosscd weight of, 379. 



Cattle, fattening, feed and management^ 
381. 

range, fattening, 397. 

see Steer. 
Cellulose, 5. 

Cereals, as forage plants, 191. 
Chafi; 2;W. 

Chaffing, advantages of, 210. 
Charcoal, for pigs, 615. 

cob, how to make, 615. 
Chewing hay, work perforn-ed in, 29. 
Chewing oats, work performed in, 29. 
Christmas-lamb raising, 529. 
Chyle, 20. 

composition of, 21. 
Circulatory system, the, 21. 
Clover, red, 196. 

mammoth, 201. 

alsike, 201. 

crimson or scarlet, 202. 

Japan, 203. 

burr, 203. 

proper time for cutting, 198. 
Clover plant, de velopmen t of nutrients, 197, 
Clover hay, for cows, 476. 

for horses, 303. 

for sheep, 506. 

for swine, 611. 

losses in curing, 199. 

making, methods of, 198. 

spontaneous combustion of, 200, 

use of, 200. 

with meal for pigs, 577. 
Coarse and concentrated feeds, digestion 

of, 31. 
Coarse fodders, digestibility of, 29. 
Coarse forage, withholding from rumW 

nants, 94. 
Cocoanut meal, 159. 

for horses, 301. 
Cod liver oil for calves, 337. 
Coefficients of digestibility, 98. 
Colon, 18. 
Colostrum, 228. 
Colt, feeding after weaning, 316. 

protein feeds vs. oats for, 300. 

rations for, 331. 

see Foal. 
Columbian Exposition, dairy tests, 448. 
Commercial fertilizers, 207. 
Composition of feeding stuffs, 97. 
Concentrated feeds for dairy cows, 413. 
Concentrates, 97. 
Condimental foods, 229. 

notes concerning, 229. 

not recommended, 230. 
Confinement, of fattening steers, 364. 

vs. exposure, for sheep, 492. 
Cooked feed, value of, 235. 

function of, 239. 

for cows, 432. 

for horses, 238. 

for swine, 2il), 545. 

experiments with, for swine, 515. 



Index. 



645 



Com, 119. 

a carbonaceous food, 120. 

alone and in combination, for sheep, 509. 

amount passing through steer, 349. 

as human food, 121. 

beef returns per acre, 381. 

composition of, 125. 

composition of the several parts of, 124. 

dry vs. soaked, for sheep, 498. 

for cows, 472. 

for fattening cattle, 381. 

for horses, 2t)7. 

adverse report, 299. 
Kloepfer's conclusions, 300. 
for sheep, 497, 522. 

for steers, plain feeding of, recom- 
mended, 381. 
for swine, 608. 

gain from a bushel of, with pigs, 581. 
nitrogen and mineral matter in, 125. 
preparation of, for feeding, 383. 
races of, 120. 
soalied, for steers, 346. 
time required to pass through steer, 

349. 
vs. oil cake for pigs, 588. 
vs. rye or barley for pigs, 591. 
Whole vs. corn and cob meal for cows, 
413. 
waste in feeding to cows, 413. 
Com and blue-grass pasture for pigs, 577. 
Corn and its by-products, 119. 
Corn and cob, weight of, 122. 
Corn and cob meal, 121. 
for pigs, 557. 
for steers, 348. 
Corn by-products, 123. 

for cows, 473. 
Corn belt, fattening sheep in, 531. 
Corn cob, 121. 

Corn cob and husks, for steers, 349. 
Corn cob charcoal, for swine, 615. 
Corn crop, nutrients of, 167. 

importance of maturity, 168. 

increase of nutrients during maturity, 

16.5. 
influence of thickness of planting, 164. 
losses in fleld-curing, 171. 
Com fodder, fertilizing constituents of, 177. 
pulling of, 174. 
see Fodder corn. 
Corn forage, cutting and shredding, 240. 
shock, feeding, 172. 
shocking, 172. 
stooking, 172. 
Corn-fed pigs, strengthening bones of, 80. 
Corn meal for cows, 473. 
only, for cows, 94. 
only, for pigs, 78, 86. 
vs. corn for pigs, 556. 
see Corn. 
Corn plant, changes in protein, 167. 
distribution of nutrients in, 169. 
In Georgia, 170. 



Corn plant, increase of nutrients daring 
maturity, 165. 
nitrogen-free extract in, 168. 
nutrients at different stages, 166. 
southern, time to cut for silage, 254. 

vs. northern, for silage, 253. 
under Maryland conditions, 170. 
Corn product, a new, 175. 
Corn silage, see Silage corn. 
Corn smut, 175. 

feeding experiments with, 176. 
Corn stover, 174. 
for cows, 477. 
for sheep, 508. 
vs. mixed hay and clover hay for cows, 

425. 
see Stover. 
Corn-stalk disease, the so-called, 175. 
Correctives for swine, 614. 
Cost of finished steer, 389. 
Cotton seed, 1.54. 

effect of, on butter, 156. 

on steer fat, 156, 
feeding of, 154. 
fertility in, 159. 
for beef production, 361. 
Cotton seed and its by-products for cow.s, 

419, 475. 
Cotton seed and cotton-seed meal, rational 

use of, 158. 
Cotton-seed cake and meal, 155. 
Cotton-seed hulls, 158. 
Cotton-seed meal, for calves, 157. 
for dairy cows, 156. 
for horses, 155. 
for pigs, 157. 

vs. wheat bran for cows, 420. 
Cotton-seed meal and hulls for steers, 155. 
Cotton-seed poisoning, 157. 
Cows, advance in lactation of, and pro- 
ductivity of feed, 407. 
amount of water drank by, 410. 
annual feed consumption of, 459. 
barley for, 474. 
brewers' grains for, 474. 
by-products of corn for, 473. 
care before and after weaning, 468. 
caring for, 464. 
clover hay for, 476. 
concerning feeding stuffs for, 472. 
confinement during heated period.s, 470. 
consumption of dry matter by, 461. 
cooking feed for, 432. 
corn for, 472. 
corn meal for, 473. 
corn stover for, 477. 
corn stover vs. hay for, 425. 
cotton seed and its by-products for, 419, 

475. 
cotton-seed meal vs. bran for, 420. 
dairy, compared with beef type, 406. 
rations for, 478. 

test at Columbian Exposition, 448. 
dairying based on maternity of^ 463. 



646 



Index. 



Cows, Danish experiments with, 442. 

distillery grains, dried, vs. oats for, 421. 

drinliing at will, 411. 

dry feed for, 469. 

effect of age on productivity of feed, 406. 

effect of grooming, 412, 

exercise for, 464. 

fall and spring, 467. 

feeding exclusively with meal, 94. 

feeding fat to, 431. 

feeding grain in form of slop to, 433. 

feeding potassium chlorid to, 432. 

fish scrap for, 431. 

fodder corn for, 476. 

fodder corn vs. timothy hay for, 424. 

frequency in feeding of, 468. 

gluten feed vs. corn meal and bran for, 

414. 
gluten meal vs. cotton-seed meal for, 

415. 
heavy feeders the most profitable, 408. 
Influence of work on quality of milk, 

412. 
Japan clover hay vs. Bermuda hay for, 

423. 
large vs. small, 405. 
linseed meal vs. cotton-seed meal for, 

420. 
liberal and meager rations for, 437. 
liberal feeding of, 470. 
maize feed vs. corn meal and bran for, 

414. 
milk of, and its by-products, 226. 
milk and skim milk for, 430. 
millet hay for, 476. 
necessity of shelter for, 464. 
oats for, 473. 

oats, ground, vs. wheat bran for, 418. 
oil cake vs. grain for, 421. 
on pasture, feeding grain to, 433. 
order of feeding, 469. 
potatoes for, 430. 
preparation of feed for, 469. 
rape for, 428. 

record for one year of, at Cornell Sta- 
tion, 460. 
regularity and kindness in handling, 

465. 
relation of concentrates and roughage 

for, 471. 
relation of water drank to milk yield, 

410. 
residual effect of grain feeding, 435. 
Roberts' system of caring for, 465. 
roots for, 477. 

roots vs. concentrated feeds for, 429. 
rye for, 474. 
salt for, 471. 

shorts vs. wheat bran for, 417. 
silage for, 477. 

silage vs. fodder corn for, 427. 
silage vs. hay for, 426. 
sorghum-seed meal for, 418. 
timothy hay for, 476. 



Cows, timothy hay vs. meadow foxtail hay 
for, 423. 

upland prairie hay vs. timothj' hay for, 
422. 

value of shelter for, 411. 

warm vs. cold water for, 411. 

water for, 470. 

wheat bran and middlings for, 473. 

wheat bran vs. mixed grain for, 417. 

wheat meal vs. corn meal for, 415. 

wheat meal vs. mixed grain for, 416. 

whey for, 430. 

whole corn vs. corn and cob meal, 413. 

wide and narrow rations for, 445. 

see Dairy cow. 
Cowpea, 162, 209. 
Cowpeas for pigs, 567. 
Crimson clover, 202. 

overripe, dangerous to horses, 202. 
Crops for the silo, 255. 
Crude fiber, 10. 

Dairy by-products for swine, 611. 
Dairy calf, rearing, 339. 
Dairy cow, American rations for the, 114. 

calculating ration for, 106. 

care and management of, 463. 

cotton-seed meal for, 156. 

economy of, 401. 

feed for, 471. 

feed and care of, 463. 

investigations concerning, 401. 

period of gestation, 401. 

pure-bred, public tests of, 448. 

tests at E.xperiment Stations, 455. 

ratio of milk yield to body weight, 403. 

relation of live weight to yield of, 401. 

rations for, 478. 

standard rations for, 114. 

yield of products, 402. 

see Cow. 
Dairy herds. Station findings with, 457. 
Danish experiments in cow feeding, 442. 
Danish pig-feeding experiments, 583. 

slaughtering tests, 584. 
Deglutition, 14. 
Diastase, 4. 
Digestible matter for one pound of growth, 

91. 
Digestible nutrients, total, 99. ' 

Digestibility, depression in, 31. 

not affected by fat, 31. 

not affected by salt, 31. 

of coarse and concentrated feeds com- 
bined, 31. 

of feeds by various animals, 30. 

of fodder, affected by weather, 30. 

of fodder, not affected by drying, 30. 

of nutrients, 28. 
Digestion, artificial, 31. 
Digestion coefliicients, 98. 
Digestion trial, with sheep, 26. 

with ox in respiration apparatus, 34. ' 
Dipping fattening sheep, 524. 
Distillery grains, dried,vs. oats for cows, 421. 



Index. 



647 



Dried blood, 220, 
for pigs, 78. 
for sheep, 511. 
Dried brewers' grains, 137. 

for horses, 293. 
Dried flsh, 221. 
Dry matter required for 100 pounds of gain 

with steers, 370. 
Dry substance in the animal body, 72. 
Dutch system of veal making, the, 313. 
Dynamometer, Wolflfs, 274. 
Ear corn vs. corn meal for steers, 345. 
Ensilage, see Silage. 
Ergot, 193. 
Ether extract, 11. 

potential energy of, 38. 
Ewes, breeding, food for, 517. 

maintenance food for, in winter, 526. 
care and feed of, 530. 
feed required for 100 pounds of milk, 

484. 
flushing, 517. 
milking qualities of, 483. 
Ewe's milk, composition of, 480. 

value of, for lamb growing, 481. 
Ewes and lambs, soiling of, 486. 
Exclusive meal feeding, 91. 
Excrement, amount of, voided by farm 
animals, 261. 
composition of, 266. 
Excretions, from the kidneys, 23. 

' of the skin, 21. 
Exercise for cows, 464. 

importance of, in horse management, 

330. 
value of, for pigs, 519. 
Experiment Stations, findings with dairy 
herds by, 457. 
trials of pure-bred dairy cows at, 455. 
Exposure vs. confinement for sheep, 492. 
Farm animals, amount of excrement 
voided by, 264. 
calculating rations for, 102. 
comparative fattening qualities of, 74. 
manure produced by, 269. 
nitrogen and ash in carcass of, 77. 
nitrogen and ash retained and voided 
by, 265. 
Farm manure, value of, per ton, 270. 
Farm stock, silage for, 256. 
Fat, 11. 

cost of production, 448, 458. 

equivalent of foods for 100 parts of, 37. 

feeding to dairy cows, 431. 

feeding with, 56. 

in milk, formation of, 54. 

in the animal body, 72. 

formation of, 56. 
Influence of, on protein consumption, 

44. 
potential energy of, 38. 
value of, for fat formation, 59. 
Fat and carbohydrates, relative eflects of 
48. 



Fat consumption, influence of water on, 60.' 
Fat formation, from carbohydrates, 51. 
from protein, 55. 
method of studying, 33. 
influence of feeding fat on, 56. 
influence of feeding protein on, 57. 
influence of feeding protein and carbo- 
hydrates on, 58. i 
influence of feeding protein and fat on, 
57. 
Fat nutrition, 25. 
Fat of cow's milk, 226. 
Fat of the body, disposition of, 617. 

source of, 50. 
Fat sickness, 363. 
Fat, see Butter fat. 
Fat-Stock Show, sheep at, 495. 
Fattening and feeds, 75. 
Fattening, composition of increase during, 
73. 
influence of light on, 61. 
Fattening of steers, feed for 100 pounds 
gain during, 370. ■ i. 

Fattening period, cost of gain increases 
with length of, 369. 
for pigs, length of, 551. 
Fattening process, concerning the, 61. 
Fattening qualities, comparative, of dif- 
ferent farm animals, 74. ':,■ 
Fattening sheep, quarters for, 522, 
Fattening shorn lambs, 490. 
Fatty acids, feeding of, 50. 
Feed, influence of, on animal body, 78, 618^- 
efl"ect of, on composition of butter fat, 
442. , 
on milk, a review of, 444. 
on teeth and skull of pigs, 542. 
on the body of the pig, 78. 
on quality of pork, 614. ; 
concentrated, necessity of, for cows, 471 .• 
cooking, for swine, 236. 
dry, for cows, 469. 
for the dairy cow, 471. 
for live stock, preparation of, 235. 
influence of cost of, on economy of ra- 
tions, 446. 
preparation of, for cows, 469. 
required for 100 pounds gain with pigs, 

551, 602. 
requirements for work with horses, 278. 
soaking of, 239. 

succulent, influence of, on milk, 439. 
wet, does not necessarily make watory 
milk, 410. 
Feed and care of the bull, 467. 

of the dairy cow, 4ft3. 
Feed consumption, annual, by dairy cows^ 

459. 
Feed lot, counsel in the, 881. 
Feed racks for fattening sheep, 522. 
Feeding, liberal, of cows, 470. 
exclusively with meal, 94. 
frequency of, for cows, 468. 
order of, for cows, 469. 



648 



Index. 



Feeding, previous, influence of, 43. 
Feeding liorses, order of administering 

feeds, 325. 
Feeding darli flour, 129. 
Feeding, for beef, 338. 

swine, light vs. heavy, 601. 
exclusively on corn, 78, 86. 
Feeding standards, conclusions relative to, 
117. 

explanations of, 97, 108. 

introduction of, in America, 111. 

Wolff-Lehmann, 101. 
Feeding stuff's, digestibility of, 26. 

fertilizing constituents of, 263. 

for cows, 472. 

manurial value of, 263. 

money value of different nutrients in, 
117. 

nutrients of, 97. 

valuation of fertilizing constituents in, 
268. 

variation in digestibility of, 26. 
Feeding tables, explanation of, 108. 
Feed required in fattening, 75. 
Feeds, order of administering to horses, 325. 
Fermentations in the stomach, 20. 
Fertilizers, commercial, 267. 

essential constituents of, 263. 
Fertilizing constituents in feeding stuff's, 

valuation of, 268. 
Field bean, 162. 

Field-curing corn, losses in, 171. 
Field pea, 161. 

common, vine of, 209. 
Fish scrap, 221. 

for cows, 431. 

for fattening steers, 356. 

for sheep, 511. 
Flat turnip, 213. 
Flavor of milk, butter, etc., feed influences 

on, 443. 
Flax seed, 148. 

for calves, 149, 337. 
Flax straw, 193. 
Flesh consumption, 40. 
Flesh formation, method of studying, 33. 
Flesh meal, 220. 
Flesh production, 35. 

influence of wide and narrow rations 
on, 47. 
Flour, dark, feeding of, 129. 

low-grade, feeding of, 129. 
Flock, quarters for, 516. 

size of, 515. 

winter care of, 516. 

see Sheep. 
Foals, 313. 

feeding, cow's milk for, 317. 

feeding before weaning, 314. 

increase in weight of, 272. 

Palo Alto system of feeding, 314. 

rearing by hand, 317. 

trotting, weight at birth, 272. 

weaning, 315. 



Foals, weight and growth of, 271. 

see Colt. 
Fodders, coarse, digestibility of, 29. 

pulling of, 174. 

value of components of, for horses, 276. 
Fodder corn and silage, feeding tests with, 

249. 
Fodder corn, cured, 173. 

digestibility of, 248. 

for cows, 476. 

for horses, 304. 

for soiling, 172. 

dry, and silage, relative merits of, 249. 

dry, milk produced from dry matter 
in, 248. 

green, cost of placing in silo, 255. 

vs. timothy hay for cows, 424. 

see Corn fodder. 
Food, the basis of life, 63. 

energy of, not measured by body heat, 
07. 
Food nutrients, digestibility of, 28. 
Food requirements for work, 68. 
Forage, rape, 218. 

coarse, withholding of, from rumi- 
nants, 94. 
Force, production of, 63. 
Formation of body tissues, 40. 
Fuel value of rations, 115. 
Gain, cost of, in steers, increases with age, 
369. 

increases with length of fattening pe- 
riod, 369. 
Gastric digestion, 14. 

of ruminants, 16. 
Gastric fluid, composition of, 15. 
Glucose, 5. 
Gluten feed vs. corn meal and bran for 

cows, 414. 
Gluten meal vs. cotton-seed meal for cows, 
415. 

for steers, 351. 
Gluten meal and corn vs. wheat for pigs, 

558. 
Glycogen, 25. 

Grain, feeding, to cows on pasture, 433. 
in form of slop to cows, 433. 
to lambs before weaning, 510. 

for lambs before weaning, 508. 

grinding, 243. 

mixed, vs. oats for colts, 300. 

relative merits of, for horses, 303. 

vs. beets for pigs, 595. 

vs. boiled potatoes for pigs, 595. 

vs. blood bread for pigs, 597. 

vs. mangels for pigs, 595. 

vs. rye shorts for pigs, 593. 
Grain-feeding cows on pasture, 433. 

steers on pasture, 358. 

residual effect of, 4;i5. 
Grain feeds vs. skini milk for pigs, 586. 

vs. whey for pigs, 5S7. 
Grass, changes in, during ripening, 180. 

dry vs. green, 184. 



Index. 



649 



Grass, for pasture and soiling, 178. 
Hungarian, 188. 
mixed, 188. 
orcliard, 187. 
redtop, 187. 
timothy, 186. 
time to cut for hay, 181. 
Grasses, at the South, 188. 
mixed, permanent, 188. 
see Hay and Pasture. 
Grinding grain, 213. 

for fattening sheep, 523. 
Grooming cows, eflfect of, 412. 
Growth and fattening, influence of wide 

and narrow rations on, 88< 
Hairy vetch, 210. 

Hard-wood ashes for corn-fed pigs, 88. 
Hay, 180, 185. 
aroma of, 182. 
chaffing, 239. 

long and chaffed, experiments with, 242. 
time to cut grass for, 181. 
treatment of, 183. 
wet chaffed, for calves, 243. 
see Grasses and Legumes. 
Hay and oats, relative value of, for horses, 

293. 
Hay and potatoes for horses, 306. 
Hay crops, the small grains as, 192. 
Hay curing, changes during, 182. 
Hay making, losses due to weathering, 185. 

points in, 182. 
Hay tea for calves, 341. 
Heart-beats per minute, in horse and ox, 22. 
Heatrunits of feeds, measurement of, 37. 
Heating water for cows, 411. 
Heiden's method for calculating amount 

of manure produced, 265. 
Hemp-seed cake vs. grain for pigs, 588. 
Herd record for one year, 460. 
Herd's grass, 186. 
Hogs, see Pigs. 

Honey-comb stomach, the, 16. 
Horse bean, 162. 

Horses, adverse report on feeding com to, 
299. 
army, rations for, 332. 
articliokes for, 307. 
barley for, 293. 

bran and shorts vs. oats for, 295. 
bran, wlieat and shorts vs. bran and 

shorts for, 295. 
carriage, feeding of, 322. 
carrot^s for, 307. 
clover hay for, 303. 
cocoanut meal for, 301. 
cooked feed for, 238. 
conclusions concerning corn for, 300. 
dried brewers' grains for, 293. 
effect of disturbed conditions on, 291. 
experiments in feeding, 306. 
feed and care of, 311. 
feed consumed and work performed by, 
273. 



Horses, feeds for, 292. 

feed required by, for performing work, 
285. 

feed requirements for work, 278. 

fodder corn for, 304. 

German army, 280. 

importance of exercise for, 330. 
variety of feed for, 328. 

Indian corn for, 297. 

influence of rapidity of work, 279. 

investigations concerning, 271. 

loss of weight of, during work, 286, 290. 

maintenance rations for, 282. 

malt sprouts for, 301. 

measuring the work of, 274. 

millet hay injurious to, 304. 

nutrients required for maintenance 
and work, 276. 

oats for, 292. 

order of administering grain, hay and 
water, 325. 

Paris Cab, rations fed to, 308. 

Paris Omnibus, rations fed to, 309. 

peanut meal for, 301. 

potatoes vs. hay for, 306. 

preparation of feed for, 325. 

protein required in maintenance ra>- 
tions for, 283. 

range of feeding stuffs for, 311. 

rate of movement, 279. 

rations for, 308, 331. 

relation of speed to work of, 287. 

relative merits of grains for, 303. 

results of digestion trials with, 275, 281. 

roots for, 306. 

ruta-bagas for, 308. 

steamed potatoes for, 306. 

stover for, 304. 

straw for, 301. 

street-car, rations for, 332. 

substitutes for oats for, 292. 

systematic feeding of, of highest im- 
portance, 328. 

time used in masticating hay, 13. 

timothy hay for, 303. 

variation in weight of, 291. 

water drank by, 286, 289. 

wheat and bran vs. oats for, 296. 

work done by, 288. 

wheat for, 294. 

work, compounding rations for, 301. 

work, feeding of, 323. 

work, nutritive ratio for, 284. 
Horse feeding, successful, a sliilled art, 312. 

supervision of, 330. 
Horse-feeding experiments, 273, 280, 298. 
Horse feeds, digestion of, 280. 
Hungarian grass, 188. 

see Millet. 
Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, 15. 
Increase during fattening, composition of, 

73. 
Indian com, see Com. 
Insalivation, 13. 



650 



Index. 



Intake of body in respiration and feeding, 

34. 
Intestinal juice, the, 20. 
Intestines, large, 18. 

length of, of pigs, 542. 

of farm animals, length and capacity 
of, 19. 
Japan clover, 203. 
Japan clover hay vs. Bermuda hay for 

cows, 423. 
Jf^panese millet, 18S. 
June grass, 185. 
Kaffircorn, value of, in steer droppings, 353. 

for pigs, 505. 

for steers, 352. 

red, yield of, 146. 
Kentucky blue grass, 185. 
Kidneys, excretion from, 23. 
Kiihn's rations, method of compounding, 

115. 
Ktihn's standard maintenance ration, 112. 
Labor, hard, nitrogen excretion during, 65. 
Lactation of cow, advance in, and produc- 
tivity of feed, 407. 
Lamb growing, value of ewe's milk for, 481. 
Lambing, date of, 517. 
Lambing time, care of sheep at, 518. 
Lambs, compai-ed with pigs, 482. 

fat, 521. 

fattening, rations for, 528. 
"self-feed " for, 490. 

feeding grain to, before weaning, 610. 

feeding milk to, 481. 

feeding of, 530. 

grain for, before weaning, 508. 

shorn, fattening of, 490. 

vs. sheep for fattening, 486. 

water drank by, during fattening, 493. 

weaning of, 519. 

weight at birth, 481. 

winter or Christmas, raising, 529. 

see Sheep. 
Lambs and pigs, relative economy of, 483. 
Lard, cause of low price of, 609. 
Large intestine, 18. 
Leaves and twigs, 219. 
Legumes, 195. 

fertilizing constituents of, 210. 
Leguminous plants for green forage and 

hay, 195. 
Leguminous seeds, 161. 

fertilizing constituents of, 162. 
Liebig's theory concerning the function of 

protein, 64. 
Light, influence of, on fattening, 61. 
Linseed meal, 149. 

castor oil seed in, 15:5. 

fertilizing constituents of, 153. 

vs. cotton-seed meal for cows, 420. 

see Oil meal. 
Low-grade flour, feeding of, 129. 
Lucern, see Alfalfa. 
Lymphatic system, the, 21. 
Lymphatics, the, 21. 



Maintenance food for breeding ewes, 520. 
Maintenance rations, for horses, 282. 

for oxen, 111. 

Kiihn's, 112. 

protein required in, 283. 
Maize, see Corn. 

Maize feed vs. corn meal and bran for cows, 
, 414. ' 

iMalt for stock, 136. 
Malting, 135. 
Malt sprouts, 138. 

digestibility of, 27. 

for horses, 301. '.J^ 

;Mamm6th clover, 201. ^ 

Mangels, 213. 

vs. carrots for pigs, 596. 

vs. grain for pigs, 595. 
Manure, from the ox, 264. 

produced by farm animals, 269. 

produced, Heiden's method for calcu- 
lating amount of, 26.5. 
Manurial value of feeding stuffs, 203. 
Manyplies, 16. 
Mare, food for, 320. 

period of gestation of, 271. 

see Horse. ' ■ 

Mare's niilk, composition of, 273. 
Mare and foal, investigations concerning, 

271. 
Mastication, 12. 

time required by horse for, 13. 
Mating sheep, 529. 
Meal feeding, exclusive, 94. 
Meat scrap, 220. 

for pigs, 575. 

for sheep, 511. 
Middlings for swine, 610. 

vs. corn for pigs, 561. 

see Shorts. • 

Milch cows, salt for, 411. 

see Cows. 
Milk, 226. 

changing components of, 441. 

changing ratio of solids to water in, 439. 

cost of pi-oduction of, 448, 458. 
■ cow's, for foal feeding, 317. 

effect of feed on quantity of, 437. 

ewe's, composition of, 480. 

feed required for 100 pounds of, 484. 
value of, for lamb growing, 484. 

fat globules of, 403. 

feeding of, to lambs, 481. 

feed in relation to, 437. 

influence of character of rations on, 437. 

influence of feed on, 437. 

influence of feed on flavor of, 443. 

influence of feed on, review of, 444. 

influence of pasture on, 439. 

influence of succulent feed on, 439. 

mare's, 273. 

nitrogenous constituents of, 227. 

modiflcations of, by feeding, 437. 

per cent, of fat in successive portions 
of, 403. 



Index. 



651 



Milk, sow's, concerning, 536. 
' quantity yielded, 537. 

composition of, 537. 
sweet vs. sour, for pigs, 573. 
wliole, 228. 

for calves, 334. 
for pigs, 571. 
Milk and its by-products, fertilizing value 

of, 229. 
Milk and skim milk for cows, 430. 
Milk ash, 227. 
Milk fat, 226, 227. 
Milk flow, influence of time from calving 

on, 407. 
Milk serum, 226. 
Milk sugar, 227. 
Milk yield, influence of shearing wool on, 

485, 
Milking qualities of ewes, 483. 
Millet, 147, 188. 

Japanese, 188. 
Millet hay, for cows, 476. 
injurious to horses, 304. 
for sheep, 507. 
see Hungarian grass. 
Millo maize, 189. 
Mineral compounds, 7. 
Molasses, for steers, 356.^^ 

from the beet factory, 224.1^ 
Money value of difTerent nutrients in feed- 
ing stuffs, 117. 
Mule, the, work done by, 288. 
Muscular energy, source of, 63, 69. 
Muscular exertion, 60. 
Mutton breeds and the Merinos compared, 

515. 
Narrow and wide rations, influence of, on 

flesh production, 47. 
Nitrogen, excretion during hard labor, 65. 
retained and voided by farm animals, 
265. 
Nitrogen-free extract, 11. 
Nitrogenous substances, calculation of 
composition, 35. 
in the animal body, 72. 
see Protein. 
Nutrients, total, digestibility of, 99. 
in feeding stuffs, 97. 
placing money value on, 117. 
valuation of, in concentrated feeding 
stuffs, 117. 
Nutriotone, 230. 
Nutrition, animal, 40. 
Nutritive ratio, 100. 
Oat feed for pigs, 564. 
Oat grain, the, 139. 
Oat straw for sheep, 506. 
Oats, a stimulating principle in, 140. 
by-products of, 141. 
for cows, 473. 
for fattening sheep, 523. 
for horses, 2iJ2. 

boiled rye as a substitute for, 297. 
substitutes for, 292. 



Oats, for pigs, 564. 

for sheep, 499. 

ground, vs. wheat bran for cows, 418. 

new, unfit for feeding, 140. 

vs. bran and shorts, for horses, 295. 
Oats and hay, relative value of, for horses, 

293. 
Oats and peas, 191. 
Oats and their by-products, 139. 
Oats, beans and corn, relative value of; for 

horses, 293. 
Oil-bearing seeds and their by-producta, 

148. 
Oil cake, value of oil in, 151. 

vs. grain for pigs, 588. 

vs. grain for cows, 421. 
Oil cake and oil meal, 149. 

as a feeding stuff, 152. 
Oil meal, adulteration of, 150. 

for steers, 351, 384. [ 

home use of, 153. 

new-process, 149. 

relative value of old- and new-process, 
150. 

swelling process of, 150. ' 

see Linseed meal. 
Olein, 6. 

Oleomargarine for calves, 337. 
Omasum, 16. 
Orchard grass, 187. 
Ox, maintenance ration for, 111. 

manure from, 264. 

see Steer. j 

Palmitin, 6. 

Palm-nut cake vs. grain for pigs, 588. 
Palm-nut meal, 159. 
Pancreatic juice, 18. 

Pari.s Omnibus Co., horse experiments con- 
ducted by, 298. 
Parsnip, 213. 
Pasture, concerning, 178. 

droppings of corn-fed steers on, for pigs, 
579. 

feeding grain to steers on, 358. 

feeding pigs on, only, 578. 

for pigs, 576, 612. 

grain-feeding steers on, 386. 

grasses for, 178. 

influence of, on milk, 439. 

possibilities of, for steer feeding, 386. 

producing veal on, 338. 

small vs. large, for steers, 385. 

time for turning steers to, 385. 

turning sheep to, 519. 
Pasture grass, yield of, 179. 
Pasturing steers, 358. 
Paunch, 16. 

Peanut cake vs. grain for pigs, 588. 
Peanut meal, 160. 

for horses, 301. 
Pear cactus, 218. 
Peas, 161. 

for pigs, 565, 611. 
Pea-vine hay, 209. 



652 



Index. 



Pellagra corn disease, the, 122. 
Pepsin, 15. 

Permanent grasses, mixed, 188. 
Pigeon-grass seed, for pigs, 667. 

for sheep, 500. 
Pigs, amount of feed consumed by, 552. 
articholtes for, 571. 
average daily gain by, 552. 
barley meal for, 562. 
barley vs. centrifugal skim milk for, 

586. 
breed tests of, 543. 
buckwheat for, 666. 
buttermilk for, 574. 
carrots vs. mangels for, 596. 
centrifugal vs. gravity skim milk for, 

684. 
clover hay with meal for, 577. 
compared with lambs, 482. 
composition of, 70. 
corn and blue-grass pasture for, 577. 
corn-fed, hard-wood ashes and bone 
meal for, 86. 

strengthening the bones of, 86. 
com mealvs. corn for, 556. 
cotton-seed meal for, 157. 
cowpeas for, 567. 

droppings of corn-fed steers for, 580. 
early gains of, 540. 
effect of addition of water to the feed 

for, 599. 
effects of feed on teeth and skull of, 542. 
fattening, 608. 
£at vs. lean, experiments with, 78. 

experiments with, misconception 
concerning, 85. 
feed for 100 pounds of gain of, 553, 602. 
feed for 100 pounds live weight of, 552. 
feeding of, 605. 

on pasture only, 578. 

through the dam, 541. 
following corn-led steers, gains of, 580. 
food of support, 550. 
for shows, ball-feeding of, 613. 
gain from a bushel of corn by, 581. 
gluten meal and corn vs. wheat for, 558. 
grain vs. beets of different sugar con- 
tent for, 595. 

vs. blood bread for, 597. 

vs. boiled potatoes for, 595. 

vs. oil cake for, 588. 

vs. rye shorts for, 593. 
hemp-seed cake vs. grain for, 588. 
increase, composition of, during fatten- 
ing, 70. 
Influence of, on the growing body of, 78. 
Kafllr corn for, 665. 
length of fattening period for, 554. 
length of intestines, 542. 
mangels vs. grain for, 595. 
meat scrap for, 575. 
middlings vs. corn meal for, 561. 
oat feed for, 564. 
oats for, 564. 



Pigs, palm-nut cake vs. grain for, 588. 

partial analyses of blood and kidneys 
of, 84. 

pasture for, 576. 

percentaj^e gain of, from birth to matu- 
rity, 6.53. 

peanut cake vs. grain for, 588. 

peas for, 565. 

pigeon-grass seed for, 567. 

potatoes for, 568. 

rape forage lor, 579. 

rice meal for, 567, 

roots for, 570. 

rye or barley vs. Indian corn for, 59L 

rye vs. barley for, 588, 

vs. centrifugal skim milk for, 586. 

separator skim milk for, 571. 

sheaf wheat for, 560. 

shelter for, 598. 

skim milk fed, gain from, a38. 

skim milk vs. grain for, 586. 
vs. whey for, 5S5. 

soaked meal vs. dry meal for, 547. 

strength of thigh bones of, 83. 

sunflower-seed cake vs. grain for, 588. 

sweet vs. sour milk for, 573. 

turnips vs. whey for, 696. 

value of corn and cob meal for, 557. 

value of exercise for, 549. 

value of shelter for, 549. 

value of various feeding stuffs for, 556. 

water drank by, 543. 

weaning, 607. 

weight, gain and feed consumed by, 551. 
at birth, 535, 510. 

wheat for, 559. 

wheat and corn meal for, 559. 

wheat bran vs. middlings for, 562, 
vs. rye and barley for, 594. 
with corn for, 562. 

whey for, 574. 

whey vs. grain for, 574, 587. 

whole milk for, 571. 

winter vs. summer feeding of, 600. 

young, exercise for, 606. 

see Swine. 
Pigs and lambs, relative economy of, 483. 
Pig feeding, centrifugal vs. gravity skim 

milk, 584. 
Pig-feeding experiments, Danish, 583. 

lessons for the breeder and feeder, 617. 

lessons from e.xp»eriments in, 616. 
Plains sheep, fattening of, 531. 
Plant building, 3. 
Plant cells, 1. 
Plant eflbrt, the end of, 7. 
Plant growth, 1. 

from the chemist's standpoint, 4. 
Plant life, the sun the source of, 8. 
Plaiitoils, 5. 
Plant substances, how grouped by the 

chemist, 9. 
Plants, elements essential to, 1. 

how food is gathered by, 3. 



Index. 



653 



Plants, the support of animal life, 8. 

Water required by, 2. 
Planting corn, influence of thickness in, 

164. 
Poisoning from cotton seed, 157. 
Porli, influence of feed on quality of, 614. 
lean, demand for, GOO. 
production at the South, 582. 
skim milk and whey fed, quality of, 
588. 
Potas.sium chlorid, feeding of, to cows, 432. 
Potato, 212. 

boiled vs. grain for pigs, 595. 
for cows, 430. 
for pigs, 568. 
steamed, for horses, 306. 
vs. hay for horses, 306. 
Potential energy of food nutrients, 88. 
Prehension, 12. 
Prickly comfrey, 217. 
Protein, 10. 

Influence of, on fat formation, 67. 
potential energy of, 38. 
the source of fat, 55. 
Protein and carbohydrates, influence of 

feeding, on fat formation, 58. 
Protein and fat, influence of feeding, on fat 

formation, 57. 
I*rotein compounds, 6. 
Protein consumption, 42. 

Influence of amides on, 48. 
Influence of carbohydrates on, 44. 
influence of carbohydrates fed with 

protein on, 46. 
Influence of fat on, 44. 
influence of mixed diet on, 44. 
influence of salt on, 49. 
influence of various nutrients on, 44. 
influence of water on, 49. 
Protein feeding, exclusive, 42. 
Protein nutrition, 24. 
Protein, see Nitrogenous substances. 
Pulp, sugar beet, 222. 
Pulse, frequency of, in farm animals, 22. 
Pumpkin, 217. 

Pure-bred steers, quality of, 378. 
Range cattle, fattening, 397. 
Rape, for milch cows, 428. 
for pigs, 579. 
for sheep, 502. 
second crop for sheep, 505. 
use of, 218. 

vs. blue-grass pasture for sheep, 504. 
Rations, calculating, 102. 

fed by American dairymen, 113. 

fed by Connecticut dairymen, 113. 

fed to Paris Omnibus Co. horses, 309. 

for army horses, 332. 

for dairy cows, 478. 

for farm animals, calculating, 102. 

for fattening lambs, 528. 

for fattening steers, 396. 

for horses, 308, 331.' 

for street-car horses, 3S2. 



Rations, for work horses, 301. 
fuel value of, 115. 

Influence of character of, on milk, 437. 
influence of feed prices on economy of^ 

446. 
liberal and meager, for milk produc- 
tion, 437. 
theoretical, for fattening steers, 395. 
wide and narrow, for cows, 437, 145. 
influence of, on growth and fatten- 
ing, 88. 
Red clover, 196. 

.yield of three crops of, 196. 
see Clover. 
Redtop, 187. 
Rennet, 15. 
Rennet stomach, 16. 
Respiration, 23. 

exchange of gases in, 23. 
per minute in farm animals, 23. 
Respiration apparatus, 32. 

digestion trial with ox in, 34. 
illustration of use of, 33. 
Respiration studies, 32. 
Reticulum, 16. 
Rice grain, parts of, 143. 
Rice and its by-products, 143. 
Rice meal for pigs, 507. 
Robertson mixture, for silage, 253. 
Roots, dry matter in, 251. 
feeding of, 214. 
for cows, 477. 
for horses, 306. 
for pigs, 570. 
for steers, 351, 384. 

modiflcation of animal carcass by, 214. 
preparation of, 244. 
storing of, 214. 

vs. concentrated feed for cows, 429. 
yield of, 2.'>0. 
Root crops, not generally grown, 215. 
yield of, 211. 

yield of digestible nutrients, 212. 
Roots and tubers, 211. 

see Beets, Turnips, Carrots, etc. 
Roughage, 97. 

for cattle, steaming of, 236. 
for fattening sheep, 5.3. 
Rumen, 16. 
Ruminants, gastric digestion of, 16. 

withholding coarse forage from, 94. 
Ruta-bagas, 213. 

for hor.-^es, 308. 
Rye, for cows, 474. 

vs. barley for pigs, 588. 
vs. centrifugal skim milk for pigs, 586. 
boiled, as a substitute for oats, 297. 
Rye and barley vs. wheat bran for pigs, 594. 
Rye and its by-products, 132. 

as stock feeds, 132. 
Rye or barley vs. Indian corn for pigs, 591. 
Rye shorts vs. grain for pigs, 593. 
Saliva, composition of, 14. 
secretion of, 14. 



654 



Index. 



Salt, for cows, 471, 

for sheep, 520, 

for steers, 387. 

influence of, on protein consumption, 
41). 
Scarlet or crimson clover, 202. 
Scotch system of veal making, 343. 
Belf-feed for fattening lambs, 490. 
Separator skim milk, for calves, 335. 

placing a money value on, 572. 
Shearing, frequency of, 513. 

influence of, on milk yield, 485. 
Sheep, at American Fat-Stock Show, 495. 

alfalfa hay for, 505. 

attacks of vermin, 521. 

bran for, 253, 499. 

breed tests of, 487, 489. 

care of, at lambing time, 518. 

comparison of the Mutton breeds and 
the Merinos, 515. 

composition of, 70. 

corn alone and in combination for, 509. 

corn for, 497, 522. 

corn silage vs. roots for, 501. 

corn stover for, 508. 

cost of gain, 525. 

daily gain of, for the various breeds of, 
404. 

dipping, 524. 

dried blood for, 511. 

dry vs. soaked corn for, 498. 

English experience with wheat for, 498. 

exposure vs. conflnement of, 492. 

fattened, weight of, 493. 

fattening, 514. 

feed consumed by, 524. 

feed racks for, 522. 

feeding, hints on, 526. 

fish scrap for, 51i. 

food of, 514. 

general care of, 514. 

grinding grain for, 523. 

increase during fattening, 70. 

influence of protein on carcass of, 511. 

in tlie corn belt, 531. 

investigations with, 480. 

length of feeding period and gains of, 
524. 

mating of, 5'29. 

mature, 521. 

meat scrap for, 511. 

millet hay for, 507. 

on alfalfa hay and grain, 532. 

oat straw for, 5013. 

oats for, 499, 523. 

period of gestation, 480. 

IMains, fattening of, 531. 

rape for, 602. 

rape, second crop of, for, 505. 

rape vs. blue-grass pasture for, 504. 

regularity and quiet for, 526. 

rate of increase, 525. 

roughage for, 523. 

shrinkage of, in shipping, 496. 



Sheep, shrunken wheat, wild buckwheat 
and pigeon-grass seed for, 500. 

sugar beets for, 502. 

turning to pasture, 519. 

vs. lambs for fattening, 486. 

water and salt for, 520. 

weight of carcass of, 495. 

Western, fattening on alfalfa hay, 506. 

wheat for, 498, 552. 

wheat screenings for, 500, 523. 

see Lambs. 
Shelter, for pigs, 598. 

influence of, in fattening steers, 364. 

necessity of, for cows, 4C4. 

value of, for cows, 41 1. 
for pigs, 549. 
Shepherd and flock, 514. 
Shock corn, feeding of, 172. 
Shorts, 130. 

vs. wheat bran for cows, 417. 

see Middlings. 
Shotes, feeding, C07. 

following steers, gain of, .347. 
Shrinkage in shipping of sheep, 496. 
Silage, 245. : 

digestibility of, 248. 

eflect of, on quality of milk, 257, 
on carcass of steers, 250. 

for cows, 477. 

for farm stock, 256. 

for steers, 384. 

from beet pulp, 223. 

importance of proper horizontal area 
in feeding, 200. 

milk produced from dry matter in, 248. 

on the rational use of, 257. 

relative losses in, and drying, 246. , 

Southern vs. Northern seed corn for, 
253. 

time of cutting Southern corn for, 254., 

vs. fodder corn for cows, 427. 

vs. hay for cows, 426. 

vs. roots for steers, 355. 

weight of, at different depths, 259. 
Silage and beets, relative cost of, 252. 
Silage and dry fodder corn, relative merits 

of, 2)9. .; 

space occupied by, 25t. •. 

Silage and fodder corn, feeding tests with, 

249. \ 

Silage and roots, dry matter in, 251. . 
Silage, corn and roots, yield of, 250. , 
Silage, corn, reinoving cars from, previous 
to ensilage, 252. 

corn, vs. roots for sheep, 501. 
yield of, 250. 
Silo, capacity of, 200. 

filling and covering, 261. 

building and filling of, 253. 

crops for, 255. 

rate of filling, 2G1. 

rectangular, 259. 
Silo construction, 258. 
Silo losses, character of, 247. 



Index. 



655 



Siloing fodders, permanency of method of, 

2-15. 
Size of the body, a factor in feeding, 60. 
Sliim milk, 228. 

centrifugal vs. gravity, for pigs, 584. 

for calves, 335. 

gravity vs. separator, for calves, 336. 

separator, for pigs, 571. 

placing a money value on, 572. 

vs. grain for pigs, 58ti. 

vs. whey for pigs, 585. 
Skim milk- and whey-fed pork, quality of, 

588. 
Skin, excretions of, 24. 
Slaughtering tests of pigs, 589. 
Slop, feeding grain in form of, to cows, 433. 
Small grains, the, as hay crops, 192, 
Smut-feeding experiments, 176. 
Smut on corn, 175. 

Soaked meal vs. dry meal for pigs, 547. 
Soaking feed, 239. 
Soiling, advantage of, 231. 

experiments, concerning value of, 231. 

fodder corn for, 172. 

labor involved in, 234. 

partial, 234. 
Soiling cattle, 231. 
Soiling crops, 233. 

Soiling crops and pasture compared, 232. 
Soiling ewes and lambs, 486. 
Soja bean, 161, 209. 
Sorghum, 14.5, 189. 

non-saccharine, 145. 

saccharine, 145, 147. 

second growth, dangers from, 190. 

yield of, 146. 
Sorghum hay, 190. 
Sorghum molasses, 225. 
Sorghum-seed meal for cows, 418. 
South, the, pork production at, 582. 
Southern vs. Northern seed corn for silage, 

253. : 

Sows, milk yielded by, 536. 

composition of milk of, 537. 

quantity of milk yielded by, 537. 

vs. barrows in swine feeding, 602. 
Sows and pigs, feeding of, 695. 
Soy bean, 161, 209. 
Spontaneous combustion, 200. 
Spurry, 216. 

Stallion, the, feed and care of, 318. 
Standard Cattle Co., amount of grain and 
hay fed to cattle, 399. 

cost of feeding cattle, 400. 

daily feed consumed and gains of steers, 
399. 

number of cattle marketed and gains, 
399. 
Standard rations for dairy cows, 114. 
Starch, 4, 5. 

Starch production, 124. 
Steaming roughage for cattle, 236. 
Stearin, 6. 
Steer, at rest, rations for, 102. 



Steer, amount of corn passing through, 
unbroken, 349. 
amount of feed consumed, 372. 
balanced ration for, 357. 
bran for, 383. 
changes during fattening of, to be 

avoided, 365. 
composition of carcass of, 70, 92. 
composition of increased growth of, 92. 
corn and cob meal for, 318. 
corn, cob and husks for, 349. 
corn-fed, droppings of, for pigs, 580. 

droppings of, on pasture, 579. 
cost of feeding increases with age, 388. 
cost of finished, 389. 
cost of gain increases with length of 

fattening period, 369. 
dressed weight of carcass of, 374. 
dry matter required for 100 pounds of 

gain in, 370. 
ear corn vs. corn meal for, 345. 
early maturity of, 374, 390. 
effect of age on rate of gain of, 367. 
effect of silage on carcass of, 250. 
explanation of fattening process, 387. 
fattening, cost of 100 pounds of gain 
with, 370. 
experiments with, 88. 
fish scrap for, 356. 
Indian corn for, 381. 
rations for, 104, 395. 
rations used at Experiment Sta- 
tions, 396. 
salt for, 387. 

variation in individual weight, 360. 
water for, 387. 
water drank by, 359. 
fed Kaffir corn, value of droppings 

from, 353. 
feed for 100 pounds of gain during fatr 

tening, 370. 
frequency of feeding, 392. 
finished, cost of, 389. 
gluten meal for, 351. 
grain-feeding of, on pastures, 388. 
influence of wide and narrow rations 

on, 88. 
Increase during fattening, 70. ; 

Kaffir corn for, 352. 
low-pressure feeding, 391. 
molasses for, 356. 
modern market demands, 390. 
oil meal for, 351, 384. 
on pasture, feeding grain to, 358. 
pasturing of, 358. 
percentage of loose tallow to dressed 

weight of, 376. 
preparing corn for feeding, 383. 
preparing for shipment, 394. 
proportion of valuable parts in carcass 

of, 377. 
pure-bred, amount of feed consumed 
by, 372. 
less feed with, for given gain, 373. 



656 



Index. 



steer, value of, 378. 

roots for, 351, 384. 

Bait for, 387. 

Bilage for, 384. 

silage vs. roots for, 355. 

soaked corn for, 3IG. 

time required for corn to pass through, 
349. 

turning to pasture, 385. 

water dranlc during fattening, 359. 

water for, 387. 

wlieat bran for, 351. 

wheat meal for, 350. 

withholding coarse feed from, 95. 
Steer fat, effect of cotton seed on, 156, 
Steer fattening, difficulties of, 345. 

influence of shelter and confinement, 
364. 
Steer feeding, by Standard Cattle Co., 399. 

close attention required, 393. 

cost of gain increases with age, 369. 

demands of modern market, 390. 

factors in, 364. 

feed lot for, 391. 

feed racks for, 392. 

low-pressure, 391. 

trials, results of, 345. 

what Southern Stations have found, 
361. 

see Ox and Cattle. 
Btomachs of farm animals, capacity of, 

14, 19. 
Btover, 174. 

for horses, 304. 

results of shredding, 24L 

see Corn stover. 
Straw, 193. 

cut, 239. 

for horses, 304. 
Sugar, 225. 

for calves, 337. 
Sugar beet, 213. 

for sheep, 502. 

leaves, 217. 

pulp, 222. 
Sunflower-seed cake, 160. 

vs. grain for pigs, 588 
Support, food of, for pigs, 550. 
Swede turnip, 213. 
Swedish clover, see Alsike. 
Swelling process, with linseed meal, 150. 
Swine, administration of feeds to, 612. 

barley for, 610. 

bran for, 610. 

breed tests of, 543, 603. 

breeding stock, management of, 604. 

clover hay for, 611. 

confinement for, 613. 

cooking feed for, 236, 545. 

corn-cob cliarcoal for, 615. 

correctives for, 614. 

dairy by-products for, 611. 

feed for, 608. 

feeding corn to, 608. 



Swine, light vs. heavy feeding of, 601. 

management of, 604. 

middlings for, 610. 

need of variety in feeding stufiTs for, 613. 

pasture for, 612. 

peas for, 611. 

period of gestation, 535. 

pure-bred, tests with, 543. 

wheat for, 609. 

see Pigs. 
Tallow, in carcass of steers, relation of, to 

dressed weight, 376. 
Teosinte, 189. 

Thigh bones of pigs, strength of, 83. 
Timothy, or Herd's grass, 186. 

yield of hay and nutrients from, 181. 
Timothy hay, for cows, 476. 

for horses, 303. 

vs. meadow foxtail hay for cows, 423. 
Trotter, feeding the, 320. 
Turnips vs. whey for pigs, 596. 
Upland prairie hay vs. timothy hay for 

cows, 422. 
Urine, composition of, 23, 24. 
Valuations of nutrients in feeding stufll^ 

117. 
Veal, essentials in feeding for, 343. 

feeding for, 343. 

production of, on pastures, 338. 
Veal making, a Scotch system of, 343. 

the Dutch system of, 343. 
Vermin on sheep, 521. 
Villi, 20. 
Waste products in respiration and feedingi 

35. 
Water, 9. 

drank by fattening lambs, 493. 
by horses, 286, 289. 
by pigs, 599. 

efl"ect of addition of, to feed for piga, 
599. 

effect of, on fat consumption, 60. 

for cows, 470. 

for sheep, 520. 

influence of, on protein consumption, 
49. 

in the animal body, 72. 

warm vs. cold for cows, 411. 
Water extracts, 32. 
Weaning lambs, 519. 
Weight, of horses, variation in, 291. 

loss of, in horses during work, 286, 290. 

of pigs, gain and feed consumed by, 551. 
Wheat, for feeding, 127. 

for horses, 294. 

for pigs, 559. 

for slieep, 498, 522. 

English experience with, 498. 

for swine, 609. 

sheaf, for pigs, 560. 

damaged, 128. 

shrunken, for sheep, 500. 
Wheat and bran vs. oats for horses, 296. 
Wheat and corn meal for pigs, 559. 



Index. 



657 



Wheat and its by-products in milling, 126. 
Wtieat bran, 130. 

and middlings for cows, 473. 

for steers, 351. 

vs. middlings for pigs, 562. 

vs. mixed grain for cows, 417. 

vs. rye and barley for pigs, 594. 

with corn for pigs, 562. 

see Bran. 
"Wheat bread, feeding of, 129. 
Wheat feeding, character of flesh from, 127. 
Wheat grain, 126. 

composition of, 128. 

fertilizing ingredients of, 131. 
Wheat meal for steers, 350. 

vs. corn meal for cows, 415. 

vs. mixed grain for cows, 416. 
Wheat middlings, 130. 
Wheat screenings for sheep, 500, 523. 
Wheat shorts, 130. 

see Shorts and Middlings. 
Whey, 229. 

for calves, 337, 340. 

for milch cows, 430. 

for pigs, 574. 

vs. grain for pigs, 587. 

vs. sliim milk for pigs, 585. 

vs. turnips for pigs, 596. 
Wide and narrow rations, influence of, on 

flesh production, 47. 
Winter lamb raising, 529. 
Winter vs. summer feeding of pigs, 600. 
WolflT's dynamometer, 274. 

feeding standards, 109. 

investigations in horse feeding by, 273. 

42 



Wolff'-Lehmann feeding standards, 101, 111. 
Wool production, 497. 

influence of soil and climate on, 512. 
Work, by cows, influence of, on quality of 
milk, 412. 
feed required for performing, by horses, 

285. 
food requirements for, 68. 
obtainable from food substances when 
fed to horse, 277. 
Work horses, compounding rations for, 324. 
feeding of, 323. 
nutritive ratio for, 284. 
World's Columbian Exposition, test of 

dairy cows at, 448. 
Yield of alfalfa per acre, 204. 
Yield of corn varies with thickness of 

planting, 164. 
Yield of digestible nutrients in root crop, 

212. 
Yield of hay and nutrients of timothy, four 

periods of growth, 181. 
Yield of milk per cow, various Experiment 

Stations, 459. 
Yield of milk at different stages of lacta- 
tion, 408. 
Yield of milk per cow yearly, 460. 
Yield of nutrients in clover crop at diflfer- 

ent stages of maturity, 197. 
Yield of nutrients in corn crop at various 

stages of maturity, 167. 
Yield of nutrients in pasture grass, per 

acre, 180. 
Yield of red clover crop, 196. 
Yield of root crops, 211. 



